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AUGUST III (August), Friedrich (1696-1763), King of Poland and Elector of Saxony from 1733 to approve on the throne as a result of the War of Polish Succession 1733-35. The reign of Augustus III - the political crisis of the Commonwealth. AUGUST (Augustus) (before 27 BC. E., Octavian) (63 BC. E. - 14 BC. E.), Roman Emperor from 27 BC. e. Grandnephew of Caesar adopted it in his will. Victory in 31 BC. e. Actium over the Roman general Mark Antony and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra completed the civil wars (43-31 BC. e.), began after the death of Caesar; concentrated in the hands of the authorities, however, preserving the traditional republican institutions; This mode is called the Principate. Later, the term "August" (lat. Exalted gods) gained importance as the title of emperor. AUGUST Yang (1500-1572), Czech preacher, belonged to the community of the Czech Brethren. Amounted to a confession of faith communities (1535), approved by Luther. Augustalia in Dr. Rome priests in charge of worship of the emperor. Augustine (d. 604 or 605), the first Archbishop of Canterbury (c 601), "Apostle of England", sent by Pope Gregory I the Great at the head of the Christian mission to England in 596. Augustine (Vinogradsky Alexei V.) (1766-1819), Russian spiritual writer and preacher, Archbishop of Moscow and Kolomna (1818). "Works" published in 1856. St. Augustine (Augustinus Sanctus) Aurelius (354-430), the Christian theologian and church leader, Chief Representative of Western patristics. Bishop of Hippo (North. Africa); founder of the Christian philosophy of history (composition "City of God"); "earthly city" - the state contrasted mystically understood "city of God" - the church. Developed the doctrine of grace and predestination, defended him against Pelagius (see. Pelagianism). Depth psychological analysis of different autobiographical "Confessions", depicting the formation of personality. Christian Platonism Augustine dominated Western philosophy and Catholic theology until the 13th century. Augustinian Friars members based in the middle. 13 in. in Italy. Charter attributed to Augustine (hence the name). Order of Augustinian acted in many countries Zap. and the Centre. Europe. AVGUSTINCHICH Antun (1900-79), Croatian sculptor, an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Arts (1973). Trainee I. Mestrovic. Expressive, heroic in spirit monuments (monument of the Soviet Army in the Batinah-Skel, 1945-47, 1573 peasant uprising in Stubica, 1973; Peace Monument at the UN building in New York, 1952-55), portraits, statues and torsos. The putsch of August 19 - August 21. 1991 unconstitutional coup attempt, to carry out the conservative wing of the Communist Party and the Soviet leadership. Was aimed at the restoration of the full power of the party-state nomenklatura. Rebellion led by State Committee on the State of Emergency (Emergency Committee), consisting of OD Baklanov, VA Kryuchkov, VS Pavlov, BK Pugo, VA Starodubtseva, AI Tizyakova and G. I. Yanaeva. To give the appearance of legitimacy to their actions coup announced that Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev could not perform his duties for health reasons. Its functions were assigned to the Vice President Yanaeva. In Moscow troops were brought, and Gorbachev blocked in the country in the Crimea. Prohibits the operation of the opposition Communist Party associations and democratic press release, restored censorship. Resistance rebellion had leadership of the Russian Federation headed by the President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin, relies on the support of Russians, especially the population of Moscow. In clashes with troops killed 3 people. Coup ended in failure. His results were the fall of the communist regime and the acceleration of the collapse of the USSR. In 1994, arrested in the case of the Emergency Committee were granted amnesty by the State Duma of the Russian Federation. Awdal Persian (d. 418 or 421), the martyr bishop of Susa in Persia. Memory in the Orthodox church on March 31 (April 13). Avdakov Nikolai Stepanovich (1847-1915), a Russian businessman, mining engineer. In the 1900-05 chairman of the Congress of Miners of the South of Russia, Chairman of the Board since 1907 congresses of representatives of industry and commerce. Since 1906 member of the State Council. AVDEEV Valentin (1915-72), the Russian scientist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1958). Works on the design and manufacturing of electronic devices. AVDEEV Ivan (1818-65), the Russian inorganic chemist. Proceedings metal chemistry second and third periods of the periodic system of elements. Defined (1842) the exact composition of a number of compounds and beryllium minerals, experimentally established a formula of beryllium oxide, studied its chemical properties. Mikhail Avdeev (1821-76), Russian writer and critic. In the trilogy, "Tamarin" (1852) - the tragedy of "superfluous man". Topical social issues in novels "Gotcha" (1860), "Between two fires" (1868). Novels, travel essays. The book is a literary-critical articles "Our society (1820-1870) in the heroes and heroines of literature" (1874). Sergey Avdeev (1956), Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation (1993), Hero of the Russian Federation (1993). Flight on "Soyuz TM-15" and orbital station "Mir" (July 1992 - February 1993). Avdiyivka, city (1956) in Ukraine, Donetsk region. Railway station. 40 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Coke Plant; production of building materials, clothing and haberdashery. Founded in 1884 Avdiivka parking, late Paleolithic, at p. Avdiyivka near Kursk. Remains of huts, flint and bone tools, figurines of women, mammoths. Avdeenko Ostapovich Alexander (b. 1908), the Russian writer. Autobiographical novel, "I love you" (Vol. 1, 1933, Vol. 2, 1967), the military-adventure story "Above the Tisza" (1954), the novel "In the sweat of his brow" (special edition 1979). Book of Memories "Weaning" (1989). AVDELAY (Abdalaikl) Seleucia (d. 344), the martyr, presbyter injured in Seleucia in persecution of Shapur II, together with St. Simeon, bishop of Seleucia and Ktezifonta. Memory in the Orthodox Church 17 (30) of April. AVDIEVSKY Anatoly T. (b. 1933), Ukrainian choral conductor, People's Artist of the USSR (1983). Since 1966, the artistic director and chief conductor of the Ukrainian Folk Choir. GG Ropes. USSR State Prize (1978). AVDIES Persian (d. 362 or 364), the Christian martyr damaged in persecution in Persia Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 9 (22) of April. Obadiah (9 in. BC. E.), The Hebrew prophet, one of the twelve minor prophets. Author of the book of the Old Testament, which bears his name. Memory in the Orthodox and the Catholic Church on November 19. Obadiah (Avid) Persian (d. 412), the Christian martyr who suffered persecution in Persia in the king Yezdegerda I. For the confession of Christ was beaten with sticks of thorns. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 5 (18) of September. AVDIKY Persian (d. C. 380), the martyr, the deacon, who suffered persecution in Persia Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of April. AVDIFAKS Persian, Roman (d. 269), the Christian martyr, the son of martyrs Marina and Marfa, brother of Habakkuk, the victim together with them in Rome in the persecution of Emperor Claudius II. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19) of July. Abdon (Abdan) Persian, Roman (d. C. 251), the Christian martyr, a Persian prince. Together with St. Sennisom bury the bodies of Christians killed in Cordula (Korduve) in the persecution of Emperor Decius, for which he was executed in Rome. Memory in the Orthodox and the Catholic Church on July 30. Stone curlew, a family of birds of the order of 40-55 cm zhuravleobraznyh.Dlina. 9 species, mainly in the tropics and subtropics (except North. America), in deserts and steppes, on the banks of rivers and seas. Active at dusk and at night; well run and fly. Avduevskii Vsevolod S. (b. 1920), the Russian scientist, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1979). Proceedings of aerodynamics and heat transfer at high speeds, fluid mechanics of planetary atmospheres. Lenin Prize (1970), the USSR State Prize (1978). Ave Maria (Latin. Ave Maria - Hail Mary), the Catholic prayer, as well as a piece of music written in the canonical or free text, including an appeal to the Virgin Mary. Known arias and songs Ave Maria - Schubert, L. Cherubini, Gounod and others. AVEYDE Oscar (1837-97), one of the leaders of the Polish uprising of 1863-64, member of the Central Committee and the National Zhonda Narodowy. Exiled to Vyatka Province. "Notes on the Polish uprising of 1863". Abel in the Bible, son of Adam and Eve, "shepherd", who was killed out of jealousy older brother Cain - a farmer, when the god Yahweh chose Abel gifts. In a figurative sense - an innocent victim of cruelty. Abel (1757-1841), a monk, a predictor of peasants. For his prediction (days the death of Catherine II and Paul I, the French invasion and the burning of Moscow and others.) Repeatedly end up in prison, having spent incarcerated approx. 20 years. Died in prison in Suzdal Spaso Evfimievsky monastery. Avellaneda (Avellaneda), a city in the east of Argentina, as part of BA Buenos Aires. 347 thousand inhabitants (1991). Port in the room. La Plata. Textiles, meat-packing, metallurgy, oil, leather and footwear industry. Ship repair. AVEN Oleg Ivanovich (1927-92), the Russian scientist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1984). Works on the analysis and synthesis of automatic control systems and methods for their design, quality assessment and optimization of computer systems. AVEN Peter O. (b. 1955), rossiycky statesman, financier. Son OI Aven. In 1989-91 a senior fellow at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (Austria). In the 1991-92 chairman of the State Committee for Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation. Since 1992, the Minister of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation. Since 1993, the president of "Alfa-Bank." Avenarius Vasily Petrovich (1839-1923), Russian writer. Didactic story antinihilist direction, exposing the moral turpitude ("Modern Idyll", 1865; "desease", 1867). Books for children: "The Tale of the bee mohnatke" (1879), "What room says" (1880). Sci-fi novel "The extraordinary story of the risen Pompeians" (1889). Popular biographies of writers (the story of DI Fonvizin, Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol). Avenarius Mikhail Petrovich (1835-95), the Russian physicist, Corresponding Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1876). Investigated the thermoelectric phenomena and critical states. Avenarius (Avenarius) Richard (1843-1896), a Swiss philosopher, one of the founders of empirio (Machism). Believed that the experience is removed antithesis of matter and spirit; proposed the theory of "principal co-ordination", according to which "there is no object without a subject" (unconscious - matter). AVENIR Indian (4 in.), According to legend, an Indian king, the father of the Rev. Ioasafa. Memory in the Orthodox church on November 19 (December 2). Aventine (Aventinus), one of the seven hills on which there was Dr. Rome. According to tradition, on the Aventine plebeians were removed during the struggle with the patricians. AVENUE (fr. Avenue), in France, USA, UK and some other countries, broad street, usually lined with trees. Ilya A. Auerbach (1934-86), the Russian film director and screenwriter, Honored Artist of Russia (1976). Movies: "Risk" (1969), "Monologue" (1973), "Strangers Letters" (1976), "Declaration of Love" (1978), "The Voice" (1982) and others. Auerbach Leopold Leonidovich (1903-39 ), the Russian critic and publicist. Editor in Chief, "On the literary office" (1926-32), Secretary General and activists RAPP. Relied on proletarian literature, pursued a policy of repression of writers "fellow travelers." Collections of articles: "The Cultural Revolution and the problems of modern literature" (1928), "On the proletarian literature" (1928) and others. Repressed. Mikhail I. Auerbach (1872-1944), a Russian ophthalmologist, academician of the USSR (1939), one of the organizers of the Ophthalmological Institute. Helmholtz (1935). Proceedings on physiological optics, ophthalmic surgery, a professional eye damage. USSR State Prize (1943). Yuri L. Auerbach (b. 1922), the Russian chess player; International Grandmaster (1952), chess writer and theorist. A prominent figure in the international and national chess movement. Since 1962, the chief editor of "Chess in Russia" (up to 1992 "Chess in the USSR"). Champion of the USSR (1954). Winner of several major international tournaments, t. H. In Moscow (1962), Rio de Janeiro (1965), Polanica Zdroj (Poland, 1975). One of the authors of a multivolume theoretical work "Chess endings" (1st Edition; 1956-58). Averincev Sergey (b. 1937), the Russian linguist, a cultural, Corresponding Member of Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1987). Investigates and translates the works of late, early Christian and medieval literature of the Mediterranean region (in Vol. H. Byzantine, Latin and Syriac). Writings on the philosophy of culture 20 in .; European translations of prose and poetry of the 20th century. USSR State Prize (1990). Avercamp (Avercamp) Hendrick (1585-1634), Dutch painter. Characteristic of the early Dutch realism. 17 in. genre and landscape paintings ("ice skating"). Averky Dmitry Vasilyevich (1836-1905), Russian writer, journalist, theater plays kritik.Istoricheskie ("a comedy about a Russian nobleman Frol Skobeyev ...", 1869; "Kashira Antiquity", 1872; et al.) Recreate the atmosphere of bygone eras through the fate of the private person. The book "On the drama. Critical reasoning" (1893). Reading conservative orientation. Averky (1 in.), The Christian martyr, according to legend, the son of the Apostle of the 70 Alpheus. Memory in the Orthodox Church on May 26 (June 8). Averky Hierapolis (d. C. 167), bishop of Hierapolis (in Phrygia), equal to the apostles, a miracle worker. Preached in Syria, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Memory in the Orthodox Church on October 22 (November 4). Auvergne (Averniyskoe Lake), Lake in Campania (Italy), modern. Averno. In ancient times was considered one of the entrances to Hades. Averroism, in the direction of Western philosophy 13-16 cc., Developed the ideas of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) about eternity and uncreated world of a single, common to all people the world mind as the substantial basis of individual souls (hence should have their denial of immortality), as well as the teaching of double truth. Originated in the University of Paris, as opposed avgustianstvu and Thomism. Was condemned by the Catholic Church. Chief Representative - Siger of Brabant (see. Also Padua School). Averroes, see. Ibn Rushd. Avers (fr. Avers, from the Latin adversus - facing face), the front side of a coin or medal. Averchenko Arkady T. (1881-1925), Russian writer. In the stories, plays and skits (collections of "Happy oysters", 1910, "On the good in fact people", 1914; novel "methods of approach and the other two," 1917) - caricature of Russian life and customs. After 1917, in exile. Pamphlets book "A dozen knives in the back of the revolution" (1921) satirically sang a new system in Russia and its leaders. Comic novel "Joke patron" (1925). "Avesta", ancient Iranian religious monument; Zoroastrianism collection of sacred books. "Avesta" arose, apparently, in the 1st floor. 1st millennium. BC. e. Text "Avesta" codified at Sassanids (3-7 cc.). Contains a set of religious and legal requirements, prayer chants, hymns Zoroastrian deities. Includes many mythological elements. AVESTSKY LANGUAGE (Avestan), literary language, which was written "Avesta". Refers to the Indo-European family of languages (Iranian group). A dead language. Used in worship by the adherents of Zoroastrianism. AVETISSYAN Avet Markosovich (1897-1971), Armenian actor, People's Artist of the USSR (1962). On stage with 1917. Since 1922 the Armenian Theater. Sundukian. USSR State Prize (1941). AVETISSYAN Minas Karapetovich (1928-75), an Armenian painter, graphic artist, theater artist, Honored Artist of Armenia (1968). Creativity Avetisyan associated with national artistic traditions distinguish epic solemnity shaped structure, dramatic passion sound color ("Remembering", 1973). Ausones (Ausonius) in Other. Rome, the first king of Italy, considered the son of Odysseus and Circe. The first inhabitants of Italy on his behalf were called Ausones, the country itself is often called Ausones. Ausones see. Ausones. Avi Shaul (pres. Fam. Mandel) Mordechai (1898-1988), Israeli writer. Wrote in Hebrew. Drama "Necklace" (1928), "The Jew Suess" (1933), a collection of short stories ("The King Karakash and other everyday stories", 1965) modern social and domestic subjects. Collections of poetry ("Poems of impatience", 1982, et al.). AIR ... (from the Latin. Avis - bird), a part of the composite words meaning: "Aviation" (eg., Air mail). Attitude indicator, gyroscopic device for determining the pitch and roll angles of the aircraft. Airlines, see. Airways. Avial (abbr. Of aircraft aluminum) alloy of Al (framework) supplemented with Mg, Si, Mn (or Cr), Cu (amounting to approx. 3%). The high ductility and corrosion resistance is satisfactory. Manufactures forged and stamped parts of complex shape (eg., Spars helicopter rotor blades). Aircraft modeling, design and construction of aircraft models in the technical or sporting purposes. Flying model sport, competition in the design and manufacture of flying models (airplanes, gliders, helicopters, rockets, etc.) And management of rate tests, flight duration and quality of performance aerobatics. International airmodelling Commission (founded in 1923) as part of the International Aeronautical Federation (see. Sport aircraft); World Championships since 1925. The aircraft carrier, surface warships, the main striking force which - deck aircraft and helicopters. Appeared in the 1st world war. During the 2nd World War II were used in the navies of the United States, Britain, Japan and France. In the following have been developed mainly in the US Navy. Divided into multi-purpose, anti-shock and; conventional and nuclear. Equipment carrier provides basing, takeoff and landing up to 100 cars. AVIAHIM, mass social organization in the Soviet Union that existed in 1925-27. Emerged as the union of the Society of Friends and Dobrohima fleet. Concerned with promoting the achievements of aviation organization advocacy and record flights. To collect contributions for the purpose of construction of aircraft, create clubs, and others. In 1927 he teamed up with Aviahim Society of assistance to defense in Osoaviakhim. Aeromedical branch of medicine that studies the conditions of professional activity of aviation professionals and to develop measures to preserve their health, increase efficiency and ensure safety. AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY (aviaraketno and space industry), branch of engineering, producing aircraft for civil and military purposes: aircraft, helicopters, space vehicles and ships, missiles, as well as their parts, components and assemblies. There was in the beginning. 20 in., Has become a major industry in the years between the two world wars. One of the most technically advanced engineering industries with a high degree of co-operation and concentration of production. Air Sports, the collective name of aviation sports. See. Aeromodelling sports, parachuting, gliding, sport aircraft. Air transport, see. Transport. Aviation Materials Institute Research (AWI), established in 1932 in Moscow on the basis of TsAGI. Research on materials, development of steels, alloys and others. Materials. Aviation (fr. Aviation, from Lat. Avis - bird), a concept related to flight in the atmosphere of heavier-than air. Aviation is also called the organization (service) is used for flying these machines. Distinguish between civil aviation and military aviation. Basis for the development of technical means of aviation - a number of scientific disciplines: aerodynamics, engine theory, etc .; bases of application - aircraft navigation tactics of the Air Force and others. Almost aircraft began to develop in the beginning. 20 in. The first successful airplane flight mechanics American brothers W. and O. Wright with an internal combustion engine - December 17, 1903. This was followed in Europe, mainly in France, build planes A. Santos Dumont, F. Ferber and others. In Russia 1909-14 there were planes YM Gakkel, D. Grigorovich, Igor Sikorsky and others. From the middle. 20-ies. in aircraft started to use duralumin (the first Soviet all-metal aircraft built Tupolev in 1924-25); to Ser. 30s. there was a final transition from biplane to monoplane. In the context. 30s. there was a jet engine; in the USSR, the first flight of an airplane with a liquid rocket engines - in 1942. From the beginning. 50s. Jets steel used in civil aviation (the Soviet Union Tu-104, 1955), widely developed helicopter, the Air Force appeared supersonic aircraft. By the beginning. 90s. production aircraft reached a speed of 3000-3500 km / h, the ceiling of St. 30 km and range up to 15 000 km. Aviation Sea, a branch of the Navy (Navy). Consists of parts of naval missile-carrying aircraft, anti-submarine, fighter, ground attack and others. Types of aircraft. Air defense, air defense corps. Consists of parts of fighter aircraft (IA) and units of military transport aircraft and helicopters. AVIV (Viv) of Alexandria (d. C. 250), the martyr, the deacon, the victim together with the presbyter Faustus in Alexandria in the persecution of Emperor Decius. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19) of September. AVIV (Abib) Nekresi (Kakheti) (d. Con. 6 in.), The martyr bishop Nekresi (in Kakheti), a disciple of St. John Zedazeni, who came with him from Antioch to Georgia to preach Christianity. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 7 (20), and 29 November (December 12), in the Catholic - 12 and 29 November. Persian AVIV (d. C. 330), the Christian martyr damaged in persecution in Persia Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox church on March 28 (April 10). AVIV Samosata (d. 297), the Christian martyr damaged in Samosata (in Syria) in the persecution of Diocletian. Memory in the Orthodox Church on January 29 (February 11). AVIV Edessa (d. 322), the martyr, the deacon in Edessa; suffered in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 15 (28) of November. Avidity (from Lat. Avidus - greedy), the properties of antigens and antibodies that determine the binding energy of the complementary portions of their molecules. Manifested in the strength of the formed complex. Glider (from the French. Aviette), low-powered aircraft, usually single or double. AVIZHYUS Jonas (b. 1922), a Lithuanian writer, People's Writer of Lithuania (1986). In stories about the village and the novels "The Glass Mountain" (1961), "The Village at the Crossroads" (1964), "lost blood" (Vol. 1-4, 1970-88), "chameleon colors" (1979), "Dyagimay" (1981) - the dramatic fate of the heroes in the difficult moments of the history of Lithuanian society. Lenin Prize (1976). Note (ital. Avviso), notification of changes in the status of netting, sent one contractor to another. Avila (Avila) Juan (1500-69), Spanish preacher, "the Apostle of Andalusia." Aviles (Aviles), city and port in Spain, in the hall of Biscay. 87 thousand. Inhabitants (1981). Ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy. Fishing. Sea Resort. Avila Mikhail Ivanovich (1882-1954), Russian painter, People's Artist of Russia (1953), member of the USSR Academy of Arts (1947). Epic battle paintings: "Breakthrough of the Polish front of the 1st Cavalry Army in 1920" (1928); "Duel Peresvet with Chelubey" (1943). USSR State Prize (1946). Avimimus Maccabeus (d. 166 BC. E.), According to tradition, the Old Testament martyr, one of seven brothers who were killed in the persecution of Antiochus IV Epiphanes for refusing to violate the law of Moses (2 Maccabees 7). Memory in the Orthodox Church 1 (14) of August. AVIGNON (Avignon), a city in southern France, on the river. Ron, the administrative center of Dep. Vaucluse. Approx. 100 thousand. Inhabitants (1990). Metalworking, textile, food, footwear industry. Papal palace complex (14 in.) With frescoes (14-15 cc.). Founded on the site of the ancient Roman colony (1 in.). The seat of the Popes in 1309-77 (forced, under pressure from the French kings - t. N. Captivity of the popes). In 1348-1791 (officially from 1797) Papal States. Avignon Papacy, forced (under pressure from the French kings) stay of the Popes in Avignon in 1309-77 (with a break in 1367-70). House of Aviz (Aviz, Avis), the dynasty of Portuguese kings in 1385-1580, based Juan I. Chief Representative - Alphonse V. AVIT (c. 460 - ok.518), German writer and church leader, Bishop of Vienna. The poem "On Virginity" (after 507; in Latin). Avita (4 in.), The Christian ascetic. Memory in the Orthodox Church in Cheese Saturday. Beriberi (from a - a negative prefix and vitamins), a group of different clinical manifestations of disease, developing as a result of sharp deficiency of vitamins in the body (beriberi, pellagra, scurvy, and others.). AVITELLINOZ, invasive disease (intestinal worms, from the group cestodosis) ruminants, mainly sheep and goats caused by tapeworms - avitellinami, parasitic in the small intestine. Symptoms: tremor, convulsions limbs. Mortality is high. Avifauna (from the Latin. Avis - bird and fauna), the same as the avifauna.

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