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ABSOLUTE (Lat. Absolutus), 1) Whatever, unconditional. 2) Perfect, complete (eg., Absolute rest). Absolute zero, the temperature at the origin of the thermodynamic temperature scale. Absolute zero is located at 273,16 ° C below the temperature of the triple point of water, for which the value is accepted 0,01 ° C. Absolute zero is unreachable in principle (see. Nernst theorem). Absolute pitch. See Art. Hearing music. Absorption (from Lat. Absorbeo - absorbed), volume absorption of gases or vapors (absorbent) to form a solution. In industry, carried out in the absorbers (obsolete. - Scrubbers) that have developed surface contact with the absorbent to absorb substances. ABS plastic, high-impact plastic based on acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene. It is used in the production of radio and television equipment housings, automotive parts, refrigerators, furniture. Withdrawal syndrome, a painful condition that develops in drug addicts when they stop taking drugs (alcohol in alcoholic patients - t. N. Hangover). Abstinence (lat. Abstinentia), total abstinence from anything, eg. from drinking alcoholic beverages, tobacco. ABSTRACT ART (abstract, figurative art, figurative art), a set of directions in every culture of the 20th century. Replacing naturalistic, easily recognizable objectivity is more or less free play of lines, colors and forms (plot and subject only guessed, symbolically implied or disappear at all ). Since ancient times, there were non-objective art in the form of an ornament or non-Finito, but only in recent history took shape in special aesthetic program. Among the pioneers of abstract art - Kandinsky, Malevich, P. Mondrian, the masters of Orphism. There are various variants: geometric abstraction, Abstract Expressionism, Informel, Tachisme, Post-painterly abstraction. Abstract expressionism, a kind of abstract art. Arose under the influence of surrealism with his idea of "automatic writing." Most clearly manifested in the painting - in free compositions to create large, impulsive stroke, sometimes - in the technique of "action painting" (eng. Action painting), when the very act of writing the picture turned into a kind of performance. The most famous American version of Abstract Expressionism, developed in the 1940s. (A. Hills, W. de Kooning, Motherwell R., J. Pollock). European counterpart of abstract expressionism is often referred to the concept of tashizma. ABSTRACTION (from Lat. Abstractio - distraction) (abstract), a form of knowledge, based on the allocation of significant mental properties and relations abstracted from the subject and others, his private properties and relations; general concept - as a result of a process of abstraction; synonymous with "mental", "conceptual". The main types of abstraction: abstraction insulation (to isolate the phenomenon under investigation from some integrity), generalizing abstraction (which gives a generalized picture of the phenomenon), the idealization (substitution of the real empirical phenomena idealized diagram). The concept of "abstract" contrasted the concrete. See. The ascent from the abstract to the concrete. ABSURD (from Lat. Absurdus - ridiculous), nonsense, nonsense. ABSURD DRAMA, for in Western drama and theater of the 2nd floor. 20 in. Represents the world as absurd. Displays pessimism uncommunicativeness, foreboding doom. Actions, speech, illogical characters, plot collapses. Creators - S. Beckett, Ionesco (France). Abscess (lat. Abscessus - abscess, abscess), a limited collection of pus in the tissues or organs due to their melting tissue inflammation and the formation of cavities. Develops acute pain, fever, impaired organ function; requires surgical treatment. Abscisic acid, plant hormones that regulate the process of wilting, leaf fall, rest. Inhibits the growth of plants. According to the chemical nature of the isoprenoid. Abscissa (from Lat. Abscissa - cut off), one of the Cartesian coordinates of the point, usually the first, denoted by the letter x. ABU Bakr (572-634), the first Caliph (from 632) in the Arab caliphate. One of the closest companions of Muhammad. Of Abu Bekr KELEVI (? -1366), The artisan, the leader of the uprising Serbedars (1365-1366) in Samarkand. Executed. Abu Muslim (c. 727-755), the leader of the revolt in Khorasan 747-750 against the Umayyads, Abbasids led to power. Killed on the orders of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, who feared the influence of Abu Muslim. Abu Nuwas (between 762-813), Arab poet. Love and hedonic lyrics. Abu Tammam (c. 796-843), Arab poet. Elegiac, panegyric, satirical poems. Arabic poetry anthologist. Abu Firas al-Hamdani (932-967), Arab poet. Poems about military exploits, love poems, patriotic elegy. Abu Hanifa AD-DINAVERI (? - C. 895), Arabic linguist, naturalist and historian. "A book of poetry and poets", "The Book of eloquence," "The Book of plants" historical work "The book is long known." ABU Shadi Ahmed Zaki (1892-1955), the Arab writer (Egypt), a philologist. Collection of lyrical poems "Dew at the dawn" (1910), "Visions of Spring" (1933), a play in verse, historical novels; works on Arabic poetics. Abu Yusuf (731-798), an Arabian writer, "Books of taxes" - a source of socio-economic history of the Arab Caliphate in the 7-8 centuries. Abubakar (pres. Fam. Abakarov) Akhmedkhan (1931-91), Dargin writer, People's Writer of Dagestan (1969). The story of the life of modern Dagestan: "Dargin Girl" (1958), "The necklace for my Serminaz" (1965), "The Sun in the" Eagle's Nest "(1975)," Mom, light the Sun "(1983). Poems (Collection" Love turquoise ", 1982). Plays. Abu Dhabi (Abu Zabi), capital (time) of the United Arab Emirates. St. 363 thousand. inhabitants (1989). The port in the Persian room. International Airport. Extraction and processing of oil. Fishing . Abu Dhabi (Abu Zabi), the Emirate (principality) as part of the United Arab Emirates. The area of approx. 67 thousand. km2. The population of 722 thousand. people (1988). The main city - Abu Dhabi. ABUJA (Abuja), capital Nigeria (1991) was built in the central part of the country. 298 thousand. inhabitants (1993). The decision to move the capital from Lagos to Abuja adopted in 1976. Abukar (Abu Corre) Theodore (8-9 cc.), bishop of Harran in Mesopotamia, a disciple of St. John of Damascus, the author of apologetic works against heretics and Muslims. Aboukir island and a cape in the Nile Delta (Egypt). About Aboukir 1-2.8.1798 during the Egyptian expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte English fleet (Rear Admiral G. Nelson) defeated the French navy and the army of Bonaparte in Egypt was cut off from France. ABULADZE Tengiz E. (1924-94), the Georgian film director, People's Artist of the USSR (1980). He worked in the studio "Georgia-Film". Allegory, plastic expressiveness, cinematic mastery is becoming increasingly important in the work of the early films Abuladze ("Lurdzha Magdany", 1955, in conjunction with RD Chkheidze, "I, my grandmother, Iliko and Hilarion", 1963), to the more mature works ("Plea", 1968, "The Wishing Tree", 1977), reaching its highest expression in the "repentance" (1987) - one of the first national anti-totalitarian movie. Lenin Prize (1988). Abul (from a ... - a negative prefix and Greek. Bule - will), a painful lack of will, lack of desires and impulses to action. Abulhair (1693-1748), Kazakh Little Horde Khan, the commander of the Kazakh militia to fight Dzhungars in the 1720s. In 1731 received Russian citizenship, than was the beginning of the accession of Kazakhstan to Russia. Abulhair (1412-68), the Uzbek Khan (since 1428) of the genus Jochi. Founded on the territory of Siberia to the Syr Darya State nomadic tribes, which collapsed after his death. Was defeated by the Kalmyks. Abul Ala al-Macarri see. Macarri. Abul-EEFA Mohammed ibn Muhammad (940-998, according to other sources, 997), the Arab astronomer and mathematician from Khorasan. Investigated the motion of the Moon, the commentator of works of Greek mathematicians. Abul Ghazi Bahadur Khan (1603-63), the Uzbek writer and historian. Khan of Khiva. Book "Family Tree of the Turks" and "Genealogy of Turkmens" - valuable literary and historical sources. Abul-Faraj (literary name John Gregory Bar Ebrey) (1226-86), a Syrian writer, scholar. Chapter monofisitov. Works on medicine, history, philosophy, grammar. "The book is entertaining stories" moralizing and satirical. Abul-Faraj al-Isfahani (897-967?), Arabic writer, scientist, musician. Writings on ancient history, philology. Compiled basic Arabic and the Arabic-language anthology of poetry 7-10 centuries. "Book of Songs". Abulfeda (1273-1331), an Arab historian and geographer. Works on general history (until 1329) and geography in the tables with the coordinates of localities. "ABUMUSLIMNAME" Persian "popular novel" 11-13 centuries. Collection of legends associated with the name of Abu Muslim, popular in Iran, Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Wed. Asia. ABUNG (self), the people of Indonesia. The number of 300 thousand. People (1992). Language Lampung. Believers - Sunni Muslims. ABU Safa oil field in Saudi Arabia, in the waters of the Persian Room. (Persian Gulf oil and gas basin). Opened in 1963. The deposits at a depth of approx. 2000 m. Inventories 561 million. M. The density of 0.88 g / cm3. Abu Simbel, the area on the west bank of the Nile (Egypt). 2 rock ancient Egyptian temple 1st floor. 13 in. BC. e. Statues, reliefs. On the facade of the main temple of Ramses colossus 4 seated II (during the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1967 moved to the rock at the old river bed). Abkhazia (the Republic of Abkhazia) in Georgia, in the northwestern part of the Caucasus. 8.6 thousand. Km2. The population of 533.8 thousand. People (1991), urban 48%; Abkhazians (93.3 thousand. man, 1989), Georgians, Armenians, Russian. 5 districts, 7 towns, 4 urban-type settlement (1991). Capital - Sukhumi. Washed Black m. Located on the slopes of the Greater Caucasus and in the Colchis Lowland. The climate is humid subtropical. Average January temperatures on the coast of 4 - 7 ° C, in the mountains from 2 to -2 ° C, respectively, July 22 - 24 ° C and 16 - 18 ° C. Rainfall 1300-2400 mm per year. River - Kodori Bzyb; Lake. Riza. Forests cover 55% of the territory; on the shores of subtropical vegetation. Reserves: Ritsinsky, Picunda-Myusserskiy.V 6-4 centuries. BC. e. the territory of Abkhazia - Part Kolhidkogo kingdom, to con. 1. n. e. Duchy Abazgs, Apsils and others. 8 in. Abkhazian kingdom arose (from 975 - in the united Georgia). In the 2nd floor. 13 in. conquered by the Mongols, from the 16th century. depending on Turkey. In the beginning. 17 in. Abkhazian principality, its population fought against the Turkish yoke. In 1810 came into Russian (1864 Sukhumi env.). 03/04/1921 formed Abkhazian SSR. On 16/12/1921 Abkhaz ASSR within the Georgian SSR, from 1931 on the Rights of the ASSR. Since December 1990 the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic, since July 1992. The Republic of Abkhazia. In 1992-94 the territory of Abkhazia is an armed conflict over its statusa.Pischevkusovaya (tea, tobacco, wine, canning, etc..), Light industry (leather and footwear, production of silk fabrics), woodworking, machine-building industry, building materials; coal mining. Tkvarcheli power station, hydroelectric Sukhumi. The most important crops: tea, citrus, tobacco, essential oil, tung. Horticulture and viticulture. Corn crops. The main port - Sukhumi. Seaside resorts: Sukhumi, Gagra, Pitsunda, new. Athos, Gudauta. UNIVERSITY OF ABKHAZIA, Sukhumi, founded in 1979 on the basis of the Sukhumi Pedagogical Institute (established in 1932). Trains specialists in philology, history, law, biology, geography, economics, physics, mathematics and others. In 1991 St. 3.8 thousand. Students. ABKHAZIA ridge on the southern slope B. Kavkaza.Dlina 60 km, height up to 3156 m. The ridge sharply dissected; glaciers. On the slopes of beech and spruce-fir forests. Abkhazian language belongs to the Caucasian (Ibero-Caucasian) Languages (Abkhaz-Adyghe group). Writing on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Abkhaz-Adyghe languages, western group Caucasian (Ibero-Caucasian) languages. Consists of Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardino-Cherkessia, Ubykh. Abkhazian revolts, in July 1866, the peasant movement in Abkhazia. Approx. 20 thousand. Participants. Suppressed by troops. Abkhazian kingdom, the state in 8-10 centuries. in the Caucasus, with its capital Kutatis (Kutaisi). In 975 was included in the unification of Georgia Abkhazia (self - Apsua), the indigenous population of Abkhazia. The number in Georgia 96 thousand. Man in t. H. In Abkhazia 93 thous. People (1992). They also live in the Russian Federation (6 th. People), Turkey (6 th. People) and the Arab countries. The total number of 115 thousand. Man. Abkhazian language. Believers mostly Sunni Muslims, there are Orthodox. Abhiratah (Skt. Enjoyment), the Buddhist paradise, the mythical happy region in the east, which is controlled by the Buddha Akshobhya. ABA, the city in Other. Greece, in Phocis. Was famous oracle of Apollo (hence one of the nicknames of the god - Abyei). Residents of the city Abant after the devastation of their country by the Persian king Xerxes moved on about. Euboea. Since that time the island was called Abantida. Abylkasymova Mairamkan (b. 1936), Kyrgyz poet, folk poet of Kyrgyzstan (1980). Collections of poems, and poems "This spring, many flowers" (1965), "Faith in the heart keep" (1968), "Fatherland" (1973), "Endless Song" (1977), "Blue-eyed my Issyk-Kul" (1986). ABE Kobo (1924-93), a Japanese writer. In the novels, parables "Woman in the Dunes" (1962), "Face of Another" (1964), "Burnt Card" (1967) - moral and philosophical problems, the motives of despair, tragic loneliness in the modern world; in grotesque fiction novel "Man Box" (1973), "The Ark" Sakura "" (1984) and in plays ("The man turned into a club", 1960; et al.), is not free from elements of rationalist analysis - totally hostile world hero, increasing social and critical trends. ABA, State Center. Burma in the 14-18 centuries. (the capital of the same name), to unite fragmented Burma. In 1752, ceased to exist, but the name Ava was used in the 19th century. (to all of Burma). ABA (Ava) (d. 1127), a German religious poet. Abaddon, in Judaism and the angel of the abyss of death, personification of Sheol. In the New Testament Abaddon (Gr. Apollyon, the destroyer) - the leader of the hordes of locusts torment people (Rev. 9:11). Avadkhara, mountain climatic and spa resort in Georgia, Abkhazia, to the north-east of Gagra. Avaz Otar-oglu (1884-1919), the Uzbek poet and educator. Denounced know and power. Collection of poetry "Happiness prosperity." AVALLON in Celtic mythology located in the west of the island of the blessed, where after the battle of rite was moved mortally wounded King Arthur. Avalokiteshvara (Skt. Bishop-seeing), Buddhism bodhisattva, the personification of wisdom and mercy. In China, worshiped under the name of Kwan-yin. AVAL (fr. Aval), the guarantee of a bill, check; may be issued for the full amount or part of it for any person in charge: the drawer, acceptor, the drawer of the check, the check holder. AVAN ... (from the French. Avant - front), part of the complex of words that correspond to the meaning of "good", "front" (avant-garde, avant hall). VANGUARD (from avant ... and French. Garde - guardian), 1) unit, following on the march in front of the main forces to prevent a surprise attack on their opponent. Vanguards can also be sent in the offensive, with the persecution during the raid. 2) Best part of society, the people. "Vanguard", the direction of the French cinema (1918). Figures, "Vanguard" looked for the original expression. From the middle. 20-ies. in the creation of "avant-garde" formalist tendencies prevailed in the 30s. some of them moved to the position realistic art. The avant-garde (avant-garde), the aggregate name artistic trends, more radical than modernism. Their early milestone in the art of iso-1910s. designated Fauvism and Cubism. The ratio of avant-garde art with the previous style, traditionalism as such was particularly sharp and polemical. Leading to a massive renewal of all artistic language, avant-garde attached special scale of utopian hope for a possible reorganization of society through art, especially his heyday coincided with a wave of wars and revolutions. In the second half of the 20th century. its basic principles were sharply criticized in postmodernism. AVANESOV Ruben Ivanovich (1902-82), a Russian linguist, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1958). One of the founders of the Moscow Phonological school. Works on the historical and descriptive phonetics, phonology, Russian dialectology, the history of the Russian language, Russian orthoepy and spelling. USSR State Prize (1971). AVANPORT (from avant ... and port), 1) the outer part of the port (for natural shelter), intended for anchorage, awaiting the approach to the docks, loading and unloading. 2) One of the two ports, located at the mouth of the navigable river, below the second (main) port. 3) stretch of water in front of navigation opening of the reservoir. OUTPOST (from avant ... and French. Poste - post), outpost, exhibit troops for their care. In the Russian army, the term was used in the 18-19 centuries. ADVANCE (fr. Avance), a sum of money or other. Pecuniary value, issued against future payments (for the performance of work, transfer of property, in respect of wages owed, on travel expenses, etc.). "Avanti!" ("L'Avanti!"), The daily newspaper of the Italian Socialist Party. Published in Rome and Milan. Founded in 1896. Half title (from avant ... and the title), the starting page of the book preceding the title page. Half title placed on the publisher name, its brand, the name of the series, the book's title or other information. ADVENTURE (fr. Aventure), 1) adventure adventure. 2) Risk, a dubious enterprise, designed for casual success; business undertaken without a real possibility. Adventurism, behavior, activities of anyone, characterized by risky unscrupulous deeds for the sake of easy success, benefit; propensity to gamble. Aventurine, dense transparent granular quartz with inclusions evenly dispersed mica or hematite; ornamental stone. Color after polishing silver-white, reddish-brown, rarely - green. Characterized by a shimmering shine with tints. Emergency protection of nuclear reactor system is a device designed for quick termination of the chain reaction in the core of a nuclear reactor. The main elements of the emergency protection - a neutron absorber rods (eg., B, Cd). The accident in the law of the sea, 1) general average - losses caused deliberately in order to save the vessel and cargo from a common danger threatening them; distributed proportionally to the value of the vessel, freight and cargo. 2) Private accident - losses caused to the vessel or cargo in the absence of common danger. TROUBLE (ital. Avaria, from Arabic. Accident - damage, damage), failure, damage of any mechanism, device, machine, and so on. N. During the motion. In a figurative sense - an accident, failure. Accident-ANDO-Tsez language, see. Dagestan languages. Avarians, state association of the Avars in Pannonia in the middle. 6 - con. 8 centuries. Raids on the Slavs, Byzantium and others. Franks was smashed. Avar Music and Drama Theatre named. G. Tsadasa founded in 1935 in Makhachkala until 1963 Drama Theatre. Actors: Nabiyeva Z., B. Inusilov, MA Abdulhalikov, P. H. Hizroeva, SM Medzhidova et al., Chief director JA Abdugapur (1971). Avar language belongs to the Caucasian (Ibero-Caucasian) Languages (Dagestan languages). Writing on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Avar Khanate, the state in Dagestan in the 12-19 centuries. with the capital Khunzakh. Since 1803, a part of Russia, in 1843-59 in the Imamate of Shamil. In 1864 abolished. Avarua (Avarua), the main town and port of the Cook Islands (ownership new. Zealand) in the Pacific c., On the island. Rarotonga. 9.3 thousand. Inhabitants (1986). Avars (self - maarulal), the people in the Russian Federation (mainly in Dagestan, 496 thousand. People) and in the north of Azerbaijan (44 thous. People). The number in the Russian Federation (including Ando-Tsez peoples and Archi) 544 thous. People (1992). Avar language. Believers - Sunni Muslims. Accidents (obry) tribal alliance, mainly Turkic-speaking tribes. Raided the Slavs, Franks, Byzantium. B 6. formed in the bass. Danube state association Avar Khanate. AVATAR [Skt. - "Descent" (God)], the Hindu incarnation of the god Vishnu in the guise of heroes Krishna, Rama, boar, dwarf and so on., To perform feats on the ground. In the myths of the best known 10 avatars of Vishnu. Avacha Bay, a bay of the Pacific approx. off the southeastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Length of 24 km, the width at the entrance of 3 km, depth up to 26 m. It falls p. Avacha. Port - Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Avachinsky (Avacha), an active volcano in the south-east of Kamchatka, north of the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. 2741 m. The cone - an ancient volcanic crater. Tawfiq Yousef Awwad (1908-89), the Arab writer (Lebanon). Collections of short stories about ordinary people "Lame Boy" (1936), "cardigan" (1937), social novels "Flapjack" (1938), "Beirut mill" (1972). HABAKKUK (7th c. BC. E.), The Hebrew prophet, one of the twelve minor prophets. Author of the book of the Old Testament, which bears his name. Memory in the Orthodox Church 2 (15) of December. HABAKKUK P. (1620 and 1621-82), the head of the Old Believers and ideologist of the split in the Orthodox Church, priest, writer. In 1646-47 a member of the "zealots Mug". Opposed the reforms of Nikon. Exiled with his family in 1653 in Tobolsk, then at Daura. In 1663 returned to Moscow continued to struggle with the official church. In 1664, exiled to Mezen. In 1666-67 sentenced to the church council and sent to Pustozersk where 15 years spent in an earthen prison, wrote "The Life" and many other works. By imperial decree burned. HABAKKUK Persian, Roman (d. 269), the Christian martyr, the son of Marina and Marfa, Avdifaksa brother, who suffered with them in Rome in persecution of Claudius II. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19) of July. Augean stables, in Greek mythology, a huge and heavily soiled stables king Augeas of Elis, cleared of impurities in one day Hercules, sent the river water in them (one of his 12 labors). In a figurative sense - an extreme confusion, neglect. Augite (from the Greek. Auge - shine), rock-forming mineral subclass chain silicates, (Ca, Mg, Fe2 +, Fe3 +, Al, Ti) [(Si, Al) 2O6]. Impurities Na, K, Mn, less Ni, V, Cr. Green, brown to black crystals, solid granular mass. Hardness 5-6; the density of 3.2-3.6 g / cm3. An integral part of predominantly mafic and ultramafic rocks. Augur (lat. Augures), in Dr. Rome's oldest board priests to interpret the will of the gods, mainly on the basis auspices. AUGUST (lat. Augustus, the 8th month of the year (31 days). The name of the name of the Roman emperor Augustus. AUGUST II (August) Strong (1670-1733), Elector of Saxony (under the name of Frederick Augustus I) from 1694, King of Poland in 1697-1706, 1709-33. Member of the Northern War of 1700-21 on the side of Russia.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM NIETZSCHE / ФРИДРИХ ВИЛЬГЕЛЬМ НИЦШЕ

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