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Ananias, a town (since 1834) in Ukraine, Odessa region., 15 km from the railway Art. Zherebkovo. 10.5 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Food companies, construction materials, etc.. It is known from 1767 as a Cossack settlement Ananias. ANANIEV Anatoly A. (b. 1925), the Russian writer. Hero of Socialist Labor (1984). Stories, novels on the theme of religion essays. The novel "The tanks are diamond" (1963) about the Great Patriotic War, "Milestones of Love" (1971), "Years Without War" (Vol. 1-3, 1975-81), "Tablets and bells" (Vol. 1, 1989 ). Chief editor of "October" (1973). ANANIEV Boris Gerasimov (1907-72), a Russian psychologist, member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR (1968). Works on research experiences, sensory knowledge, inner speech, as well as age and differential psychology. Ananyino culture (in archeology) Iron Age (8-3 cc. BC. E.), In the middle basin of the Volga and Kama; name on d. Ananyino in Tatarstan. Mounds and mounds. Economy: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, and metallurgy. Anan'ich Boris (b. 1931), the Russian historian, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1994). Works on the Russian economy con. 19 - early. 20 cc., Source; publishing sources. Anapa, city (1846) in the Russian Federation, Krasnodar kr. Children's Climate and mud-bath resort on the Black m. Railway station. 56.7 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Food industry, spinning and weaving mill and others. 4-3 centuries. BC. e. in place of Anapa - antique city Gorgippia on excavations which - open-air museum. Anapaest (from the Greek. Anapaistos - reverse Dactyl, letters. - Reflected back), poetic meter, formed by 3-feet complex, with a strong place on the 3rd syllable (AND circuit and -); on the initial syllable lines often hypermetrical stress ("There, in the night howling cold," Alexander Blok). The most commonly used sizes of Russian syllabic-tonic anapestic - 4- and 3-stop (with Ser. 19 in.). Anaplasmosis, parasitic diseases of animals, mainly ruminants caused by blood parasites - Anaplasma. Symptoms: anemia, emaciation. ANAR (full name and fam. Anar Rasul Rzayev) (b. 1938), the Azerbaijani writer. In prose - social and moral conflicts of urban life. Collections of short stories and novels: "In anticipation of the feast" (1963), "The rain had stopped" (1968), "Molla Nasreddin-66" (1970), "Circle" (1973); novel "The sixth floor storey building" (1980) and others. ANARCHISM (from the Greek. anarhia - anarchy), the socio-political movement, which calls for the immediate abolition of all state authority (as a result of "spontaneous" spontaneous revolt of the masses) and the establishment of the federation small independent producers' associations, rejected the political struggle. Anarchism emerged in the 40-70-ies. 19 in. in the West. Europe. The main ideologists were Max Stirner, Proudhon, P., Bakunin, Kropotkin PA. In Russia in the 19th century. anarchist ideas were reflected in the theory and practice of revolutionary populism in the various anarchist groups during the Revolution of 1905-07, and especially during the Civil War (see. Art. NI Makhno). Anarcho-syndicalism, for the labor movement, were influenced by anarchism. Considered the highest form of organization of the workers unions (in French - syndicates, hence syndicalism), which must pass the means of production. He played for the tactics of "direct action" (sabotage, boycott, strike and economic, as "the highest form of" struggle, a general economic strike). The most widely used in the beginning. 20 in. ANASTASEVICH Vasily (1775-1845), a Russian bibliographer; published the magazine "Beehive" (in N1, 1811, article Anastasevicha "Bibliography"). Compiled by "painting" libraries VA Plavilshchikov and AF Smirdin, valuable as indicators of Russian literature of the 1st third of the 19th century. Anastasievskaya Trinity FIELD oil and gas, in the Slavic region of Krasnodar kr. (North-Caucasus-Mangyshlak oil and gas province). Opened in 1953. The depth of 1.5-2.0 km. Initial oil production wells 14-45 tons / day. Density 0,83-0,91 g / cm3, the content of S 0,15-0,25%. Methane gas. ANASTASSY I (c. 430-518), the Byzantine emperor from 491 to ease the tax burden of the cities, improved monetary system. Monofisitov supported. Suppressed the revolt (513-515), headed by the commander of federates Vitalian. Anastasius of Sinai (7th c.), Christian theologian, the abbot of the monastery of St. Sinai. Catherine. Author polemical work "Travel Guide" dedicated to refuting various heretical teachings. Memory in the Orthodox Church on April 20, in the Catholic - 21 April. ANASTASIA Uglich (d. 1609), abbess, Martyr, who died in the ruin of Uglich Poles in the Time of Troubles. Memory in the Orthodox Church on May 23 (June 5) (Cathedral of the Rostov-Yaroslavl saints). Anastasia Abramovich Nicholas (b. 1940), the Russian literary critic. MSU professor. The main area of interest: American literature of the 20th century., Creativity Nabokov. Books: "Faulkner" (1976), "Frustration and Hope" (1979), "Updating tradition: the realism of the 20th century. In a confrontation with modernity" (1984), "Vladimir Nabokov" (1991) and others. Anastigmatic (from the Greek. an - a negative particle and astigmatism), the most perfect lens, which corrected astigmatism, curvature of the image field, coma, spherical and chromatic aberration. Used mainly in photographic and movie-taking devices. Anastomosis (from the Greek. Anastomosis - hole exit) (anastomosis), 1) in animals and humans side branch (channel) connecting vessels, nerves, ducts, hollow organs. Artificial anastomosis impose surgically. 2) In the higher plants the compound of vascular bundles in the leaves, stems and other nodes. Structures. 3) In fungi connection or fusion of interconnected hyphae mycelium. Anat in zapadnosemitskoy mythology the goddess of hunting and war. Cult of Anat during Hyksos rule penetrated al. Egypt, where she was honored as the daughter of Ra. Anatase mineral subclass simple oxides, polymorphs one of TiO2, impurities Fe, Zn, Nb. Greenish-yellow, gray to black crystals. Hardness approx. 6; density approx. 3.9 g / cm3. When heated to 915 ° C passes into rutile. Secondary accessory mineral in the gneisses, granites and others. Anatexis (from the Greek. Anatexis - melting), the process of partial melting of rocks and their transformation into magma. TOXOID (from the Greek. Ana- - back and toxin), bacterial toxins, neutralized by a special treatment, but retained the antigenic properties (see. The antigens). Used for immunization against diphtheria, tetanus and others. Infections. Anatolian News Agency (Anadolu Ajansi), the news agency in Turkey. Founded in 1920, Ankara. Joint-Stock Company, subsidized by the government. Anatolian plateau in Turkey, the interior of Asia Minor highlands; limited to the Taurus Mountains (in the south) and Pontian (in the north). The average altitude is 800-1500 m. Salt marshes and salt lakes (Ace et al.). Steppes and semi-deserts. Anatoly (Gr. Anatole, letters. - East tour. Anadolu), the ancient name of Asia Minor; in the name of the province of the Ottoman Empire in the west of Asia Minor in the center of Kütahya; 20-ies. 20 in. the name of the Asian part of Turkey. Anatomy (from the Greek. Anatome - dissection), the science of the structure (mainly domestic) of the body, section morphology. Distinguish animal anatomy and plant anatomy. Are independent human anatomy (with its main sections - the normal anatomy and pathological anatomy) and comparative anatomy of animals. The founders of the anatomy of animals and humans in ancient times - Aristotle, Galen K., modern anatomy - A. Vesalius and William Harvey. Anau, the remains of ancient (5th thousand. - 4 in. BC. E.) In agricultural settlements with. Anau near Ashkhabad, gave the name to the culture of the Eneolithic. Remains of houses, painted vessels, metal tools and others. Anathema (Greek. Anathema), in Christianity church curse, excommunication. Anaphylaxis (from the Greek. Ana- - and against phylaxis - protection), the kind of immediate allergic reaction (see. Allergy). Implication: general - anaphylactic shock, serum sickness; Local - inflammation, edema, necrosis sometimes. Anaphora (Gr. Anaphora, letters. - Submission), stylistic figure; repetition of the initial parts (sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic constructions) of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, verses, phrases): "City magnificent city poor ..." (Pushkin). ANAHEIM (Anaheim), a city in the western US, pcs. California. 266 thousand. Inhabitants (1990). Aviaraketnokosmicheskaya, electronic, chemical, canning industry. Center of tourism (in Anaheim - Park "Disneyland"). Anahita (Anahit), in the Armenian mythology the goddess-mother, the goddess of fertility and love. Anchorite (Greek. Anachoretes), hermit, recluse. ANAHROMAT lens in which chromatic aberration is not corrected; gives a sharp image only in monochromatic light. Anachronisms (from the Greek. Ana- - back against and chronos - time), 1) error against the chronology, the assignment of an event, a phenomenon to others. Time. 2) The intentional introduction into the image of any era unusual for her to hell. 3) A relic of antiquity. Anaerobic infections, see. Gas gangrene. Anaerobes (anaerobic organisms), are able to live in the absence of atmospheric oxygen; certain types of bacteria, yeast, protozoa, worms. Energy for life is obtained by oxidizing organic, less inorganic substances without free oxygen or using light energy (eg., Purple bacteria). Obligate, or strict anaerobes develop only in the absence of oxygen (eg., Clostridium), optional or conditional, anaerobes - and in his presence (eg., E. coli, ciliates). Widely distributed in soil, water, bottom sediments. Avg. Aerobes. Engagement (fr. Engagement - commitment, hiring) (obsolete.), Guest artists for a certain period to participate in performances or concerts. HANGAR (fr. Hangar), storage facilities, maintenance and repair of aircraft and helicopters. Angara river to the south-eastern west. Siberia, usually the high-water tributary of the Yenisei. 1779 km, the basin area 1,040 thousand. Km2. Outflow from the lake. Baikal; from the source to most of the stretch turned into a cascade of reservoirs. The average discharge at the mouth of 5100 m3 / s. The main tributaries: Irkut, white, eye, Taseeva - left, Ilim - right. The river is navigable from its source (intermittently from hydroelectric dams). On the Angara - Irkutsk, Bratsk and Ust-Ilim, built (1994) Boguchanskaya HPP; years. Irkutsk, Angarsk, Bratsk and Ust-Ilim, and others. HANGAR TOP see. Upper Angara. Hangar (fr. Angarie, from Gk.), In international law - the seizure of the warring nations at their ports of merchant ships of neutral countries for military use. Hague Conventions of 1907 recognized the Angara flagrant violation of neutrality. Hangar-PITSKY iron ore basin in the Russian Federation, in the south of Krasnoyarsk kr. Opened in 1946. Deposits of primary sedimentary metamorphic hematite ores: Nizhneangarsk Ishimbinskoe, Udorongovskoe. Explored reserves of hard-hematite ores 855 million. Tons with Fe content of 40%. Angarsk city (since 1951) in the Russian Federation, Irkutsk region., A marina on the River. Angara. Railway station. 268.8 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Industry: oil refining, chemical and petrochemical, engineering, woodworking, building materials. Institute of Technology. Angas (self - kerang), the people of Nigeria. The number of 250 thousand. People (1992). Language Angas. Believers - Sunni Muslims, part adheres to traditional beliefs. ANGASSKIE language, see. Chadic languages. ANGELINA Praskovja Nikitichna (1912 / 13-1959), the organizer of the first female tractor brigade in the USSR in 1933, twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1947, 1958). USSR State Prize (1946). ANGELOPOULOS (Angelopoulos) Theo (b. 1936), the Greek filmmaker. A lawyer by training. In the movie began as a critic. As a director, in a metaphorical way develops the theme of real and legendary past of Greece. Home Venice Film Festival Award for experimental film ("Alexander the Great", 1988); Silver Award Venice Film Festival ("Landscape in the Mist", 1988); Grand Prize of the Jury at Cannes ("Ulysses' Gaze", 1995). Angelus Silesius (Angelus Silesius - "Bulletin of Silesia" pres. The name of Johann Scheffler, Scheffler), German poet and mystic, author of "The Cherubic Wanderer" (1657) - a book of profound poetic aphorisms summarizing the ideas of German mysticism of Eckhart to Boehme. ANGELS (from the Greek. Angelos - Gazette), in the Jewish, Christian, Muslim mythology incorporeal creatures, the mediator between God and men. ANGELS, the dynasty of the Byzantine emperors in 1185-1204, founder Isaac II; in 1204-1318 dynasty rulers of Epirus state. ANGEMITONNY scale (angemitonika, bespolutonovy scale), see. Pentatonic. Anhydride, chemical compounds derived from inorganic and organic acids generated during the dehydration blocked. Eg., SO3 - sulfuric anhydride, (CH3CO) 2O - acetic acid anhydride. Anhydrite, 1) class mineral sulfates, Ca [SO4]. Tv. 3.5-3.8; density of 2,9-3 g / cm3. Absorbing water, turns into gypsum. Sedimentary, hydrothermal mineral. Cement, fertilizer, raw material for the production of sulfuric acid. Ornamental stone. 2) The sedimentary rock composed primarily of the mineral anhydrite. Used as fertilizer, cement, etc.. ANGY (Aggy, Agny) Sebaste (d. C. 320), one of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. ANGILEYKO Fedor Belarusian wood engraver. Worked in 1700-03 when printing MJ Voshchanka in Mogilev (books "that is to say Irmolay Osmoglasnik John of Damascus", 1700; "Book of Hours", 1703). Angina (lat. Angina, letters. - Gasp), acute infectious disease characterized by inflammation mainly tonsils. Pathogens mainly streptococci and staphylococci. Sore throat when swallowing, fever. There may be local (abscess) and general (joint disease, heart, kidneys, etc..) Complications. Angio ... (from the Greek. Angeion - vessel), part of compound words, means: belonging to the vessels of the vascular system (humans, animals, plants), for example. vasoconstriction. Angiography (angio from ... and ... of the graph), the method of X-ray examination of the blood and lymph vessels after the introduction of radiopaque substance in them. ANGIOLOGY (of angio ... and ... logy), sections of anatomy and clinical medicine dealing with blood and lymphatic vessels and their disease. Angioma (of angio ... and ... ohm), a benign tumor of the blood (hemangioma) or lymph (lymphangioma) vessels. Vasoconstriction (from angio ... and spasm), spasm of the small arteries, impairs blood flow to the body (tissue), for example. angina. ANGIOTENSIN (gipertenzin, angiotonin), hormone (peptide) formed in the blood of animals and humans. As part of the renin-angiotenzionnoy system regulates blood pressure, salt and water metabolism of the organism stimulates aldosterone secretion, and other prostaglandins. Hormones. Angirasas, Vedic sage Rishi, one of the authors of the mythical "Rig Veda". Angirasas, Vedic deities - messengers, singing songs; patrons of poets. Children Angirasa. Angkor, a grand complex of temples, palaces, reservoirs and canals near the city of Siem Reap (Cambodia), built in 9-13 centuries. The ruins of the capitals Yaśodharapura (founded in the late. 9 in.) And Angkor Thom (con. 12 V-1432, square in plan, the area of St. 9 km2 central Bayon temple), stone plinths wooden palaces, "temple-mountains "in the form of stepped pyramids, in Vol. h. the largest Angkor Wat (c. 1113-50), with a rich sculptural decoration. Anglesey (fr. Anglaise; danse anglaise - English dance), the common name of English folk dance common in others. European countries in the 17-19 centuries. Anglesey, class mineral sulfates, Pb [SO4]. Colorless, light-colored crystals, granular mass. The hardness of 3-3.5; density approx. 6.4 g / cm3. Basically supergene, hydrothermal. Ore of lead. The English Revolution of the 17th century., The first revolution on a European scale. Ideological banner of revolutionary opposition to absolutism became Puritanism (see. The Puritans), and its organizational design - Parliament. During the 1st (1642-46) and 2nd (1648) civil war between supporters of the Long Parliament and royalists created O. Cromwell parliamentary army inflicted a decisive defeat of the royal army of Charles I Stuart at Neyzbi (1645) and Preston (1648). King was executed (1649); proclaimed a republic. The dominant position it occupied the Independents, who defeated the movement of the Levellers and Diggers, to suppress the liberation struggle of the Irish and Scottish people. In 1653 established a military dictatorship - protectorate of Cromwell. In 1660 carried out the restoration of the Stuarts, who had agreed to recognize the main achievements of the revolution (in Vol. H. The actual approval of private ownership of land). A coup 1688-89 (Vol. N. Glorious Revolution) secured access to state power of the bourgeoisie. * * * The English Revolution of the 17th century., Socio-political upheaval 1640-60-ies. in the UK, accompanied by civil wars, the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic and the beginning of the revolution protektorata.Predposylki In the late 16th - early 17th century. in England, there is an intensive development of the economy, especially in the field of agriculture. Tudor reforms have led to the concentration of land in the hands of "money people" - rural nobility and gentry owners manufactories. Fencing communal lands for the purpose of breeding sheep and wool trade and meat gave them a profit and at the same time deprived of livelihood of the poorest peasants who joined the ranks of the unemployed. The village is spread large-scale capitalist land rent, cause a major stratum farmers. The interests of these new layers of society come into conflict with the feudal law and the subordination of land holdings as a knight holding korolyu.V industry there are significant changes in the forms of organization and division of labor develops manufactory. Industrial production is still closely linked to agriculture, thereby formed a close alliance with the bourgeoisie new nobility - the gentry. These many rural farmers who were simultaneously and merchants, and industrialists, form the main opposition force the regime. Their discontent is enhanced by Stuart kings - Jacob I (1603-25) and Charles I (1625-49), the board noted that the crisis of English absolutism. English monarchy rests on the aristocracy, feudal nobility and the Church of England, to replenish the treasury gives a monopoly on the production of goods, which hinders the development of industry and commerce and annoys. To combat unhappy crown introduces emergency courts Star Chamber and High Commission. Opposition to the monarchy is expressed primarily in protest against its ideological support - the Church of England. Back in the 16th century. among the new class begins religious movement puritanism (from the English. pure - pure), who sought to purify the church from the costly rites and sacraments, from the power of the bishops of the ecclesiastical courts. Played a major role English translation of the Bible, illegal imports from Geneva. Along with the Calvinistic Presbyterian Church there are many non-conformist sects and movements, is the general name of "Independents" (independent) .In 1628 the parliamentary opposition presented its demands in the "Petition of Right". In response, Charles I disbanded the parliament and for 11 years the rules individually using their favorites - Earl of Strafford, viceroy of Ireland and Archbishop William Laud. He, without the consent of Parliament introducing new taxes, fines and levies. In 1639 Scotland, dissatisfied with the onset of her rights and religious freedom, the beginning of the war against England. To raise funds for the war, Charles I was forced to convene the first short (April 13 - May 5, 1640), followed by the Long Parliament. Last opened November 3, 1640 and immediately made a number of decisive requirements king. This time is considered the beginning of the English revolyutsii.Programma bourgeois-aristocratic opposition contained in the "Petition of the roots and branches", which requires the destruction of the Episcopate (December 1640), and "Great Remonstrance" (December 1641). Pursuant to its Parliament abolished the Star Chamber courts and the High Commission in July 1641, abolished the arbitrary taxes. In May 1641 trial on Count Strafford. Under pressure from the masses Charles I signed the death warrant to her favorite, who was executed on May 12 1641. In October starts a rebellion in Ireland against British rule. In January 1642, Charles I attempts to arrest five leaders of the parliamentary opposition, but the people harboring them in the City of London. At the beginning of 1642 the king departs to the north and begins to gather the troops. Parliament adopts "Nineteen proposals" King requiring amplification power of Parliament, but the king rejects them and August 22, 1642 declares war on Parliament; begins a civil voyna.Pervaya civil war on the side of the Parliament were mostly residents of the more developed eastern counties. At first, they were defeated by the royal cavalry attacks. Parliamentary generals avoided decisive action; Parliament, the majority of which were Presbyterians, sought to compromise with Charles I. In 1643 he signed the Solemn League and Covenant with Scotland, England entered the Presbyterian church order. At the same time Cromwell starts to create a regular parliamentary army. June 2, 1644 it deals royalist troops serious defeat at Marston Moor. January 11, 1645 signed by the Parliament Act to establish a new model army, the de facto head which becomes Cromwell. June 11, 1645 Cavaliers finally defeated at Neyzbi. Charles I fled to the north and surrendered to the Scots. February 26, 1646 Parliament passed a revolutionary act to abolish the royal custody of landed property subjects; thereby unilaterally abolished the feudal knight holding land from the king. At the same time medieval peasants responsibilities in relation to the lords are not canceled. In the future, this has led to massive expropriation of the peasantry. For new owners revolution was essentially over. Legislative leaders have bought the King of Scots, and negotiated with him, seeking the establishment of a constitutional monarhii.Dvizhenie Levellers and the establishment of the republic becomes the core of the left forces army, which in 1646-47 formed political party egalitarians (Levellers), supported by the urban petty proprietors. The ideological basis of the movement were the doctrine of natural rights, popular sovereignty, social contract, the right to the deposition of the tyrant. The leaders of the Levellers John Lilburn, William Walwyn, Richard Overton require the creation of democratic laws guaranteeing the rights of the people and every citizen, democratic freedoms, the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords, Parliament and the responsibility of officials to the people, the inviolability of private property. Under their pressure in 1647 begins the democratic stage of the revolution: the initiative passes to the national Nizam. In the shelves are elected agitators that promote their party requirements. Order the dissolution of the parliament army causes a sharp protest.Eto forces generals, especially Cromwell and Fairfax, go for a break with the Presbyterian majority of parliament and unite with the army. By order of Cromwell's cavalry detachment captures the king. Officers Independents are drafting a constitution - "Heads of Proposals" in which to save the monarchy and the House of Lords, but their power is controlled by elected every two years by the Parliament; introduced the freedom of conscience, petitions, meetings; abolished monopolies and restrictions on trade. Levellers offer its draft constitution - the "People's Agreement". The main points of it - universal suffrage; abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords; unicameral parliament is elected annually; abolition of monopolies, patents, excise, privilege; progressive forms of taxation. This constitution with "Chapter proposals" was discussed in October - November 1647 in the PETN at an enlarged meeting of the Council of the army. It was first sounded the requirement to call Charles I to account for the wrongs done to the country. No compromise was reached, and Cromwell dissolved the Council of the army. Levellers tried to protest at the All-Army looks to the Huere, but Cromwell personally suppressed myatezh.Eto strengthened Presbyterian-royalist camp. In November, Charles I was running on about. White and formed an alliance with the Scots. Rise royalist uprisings in various places in England. In the spring of 1648 begins second civil war. Cromwell with the "Ironsides" suppresses the royalists, first in Wales, then at Preston. By September 1648 the hostilities essentially completed. But Presbyterian parliament begins new negotiations with the king, seeking compromise. This leads to a rapprochement with the top officer Levelers. Under pressure from the army again captures the last king; in December 1648 troops occupy London; detachment under the command of Colonel Pride Clean Parliament from the Presbyterian majority; it is less than 100 people. At the beginning of 1649 the House of Commons announces the people the source of power, and myself - the supreme body strany.V January 1649 the Supreme Court held the meeting of justice, created the Independent Parliamentary and senior officers. Charles accused of trying to establish tyranny, in the destruction of the rights and liberties of the people, in blood and treason. His sentenced to death. January 30, 1649 Charles I publicly beheaded in the square before the palace. In England and set respublika.Respublika protectorate under the new regime in power stood tip of officers and new nobles who are not interested in the continuation of democratic reforms. Their self-interest has been criticized Levelers. They noted the deterioration of the situation of the people as a result of war and economic crisis. In April rises movement "true Levellers", or "diggers" (diggers), who began to plow unauthorized public heath in Surrey, and later elsewhere. They demanded property and political equality, socialization of land and the destruction of universal labor exploitation. The leader of the movement was Gerard Winstanley, bankrupt trader; He outlined his views in a utopian treatise "The Law of Freedom" (1652). Primitive communist colony diggers finally defeated in the spring of 1650. Political Levellers strongly distanced themselves from the movement of the Diggers and the new edition of the "People's Agreement" in May 1649 stressed the principle of the inviolability of private property. At the same time, finally lost faith in the possibility of peaceful reform, in May 1649 they raised an armed revolt. Army under Cromwell and Fairfax brutally suppressed the uprising. By the autumn of 1649 the last remnants of the movement were levellerskogo razgromleny.Porazhenie democratic forces of the revolution alienated from her broad sections of the people. Before the "rump" Long Parliament was now the task to eliminate pockets of royalist threat in order to consolidate his power. To this end, in August 1649 - May 1650 Cromwell with ruthless cruelty wins Ireland, which leads to its plunder and enrichment of the new owners, and ultimately contributes to the restoration of the monarchy. This aggressive action corrupted Army, turning it from a revolutionary conquest and grabitelskuyu.Royalistskaya threat was now in Scotland, where February 5, 1649 the son of Charles I was proclaimed King Charles II. Cromwell and his army went there in September 1650 and broke the Scots at Danbury, and in September of the following year inflicted on them a crushing defeat at Worcester. The Scottish army was completely destroyed, the king fled and soon crossed the continent. Thanks to the victories of Cromwell Commonwealth of England officially recognized Spain, Sweden, France, Italy and overseas countries kolonii.Vnutri situation remained difficult. England ravaged crop failures, the decline in production, reduction of trade and unemployment. The new owners of the land infringes on the rights of peasants. The country needs reform law and to adopt a constitution. The people grew discontent. Under these conditions, Cromwell in 1653 accelerates the "rump" of the Long Parliament, and establish a new authority, the so-called Small or Berbonsky parliament. Its members were appointed by the local congregations "pious people". They immediately tried to implement democratic reforms: to codify legislation to abolish the brutal punishment, tithing system of leases, rents landlords and so on. N. This caused strong dissatisfaction with the ruling elite. Under the pressure of the officers was forced to dissolve parliament in December 1653.V December 1653 Cromwell as Lord Protector was proclaimed in England, Scotland and Ireland, and the country adopted a new constitution, "gun control". According to her supreme authority received a lifetime Cromwell; Parliament of 400 elected for a term of three years; qualification was high: 200 pounds. Tread commanded the armed forces, was in charge of foreign policy, had the right of veto, and so on. N. Protectorate was essentially a military dictatorship. Parliament, which met in September 1654, he tried to curtail the power of the tread and revise the "gun control". As a result, in January 1655, Cromwell dissolved it, and brought the country's police regime, Major-Generals. He divided England into 11 districts and each headed by a sole ruler set with broad police powers. Again, censorship was introduced. This regime has proved highly unpopular and ruinous. Confirmation in 1656 unilateral cancellation of feudal holdings and ongoing fencing intensified popular discontent. The Army did not receive a salary and a loud murmur. In September 1656 the new parliament offers Cromwell "humbly petition and the Council" - a constitution that returned to England in pre-revolutionary form of government: the King, Lords and Commons, and Cromwell was asked to take the crown. Under the pressure of the officers he refused the crown, but the rest of the constitution prinyal.Restavratsiya Stuarts September 3, 1658, Cromwell died, and power passed to his son Richard. Popular discontent manifested with renewed vigor, and in May 1659 Richard is leaving his post. To power returns "rump" Long Parliament - established the Second Republic. With a popular, new hope; growing stream of petitions, pamphlets, the draft constitution. However, the "rump" is incapable of leading the country out of economic and social crisis, and after a series of coups d'état in February 1660 in Westminster Pride rally persecuted Presbyterians. Important role in this played stationed in Scotland Army General Monk, who came to London. Long Parliament abolished all acts of "rump", adopted in the autumn of 1648. The elections were scheduled in the Convention. At this time Charles II in the Netherlands issued a Declaration of Breda, where the promised amnesty for all activities in the civil war, freedom of conscience and the approval of land sales. Convention, meeting in April, in May 1660 proclaimed King Charles II. May 26 Charles II triumphantly entered London. In England, the newly established regime of absolute monarhii.Literatura: Savin AN Lectures on the History of the English Revolution. M., 1937.Dmitrevsky NP Legislation English Revolution 1640-1660. M .; L. 1946.Angliyskaya bourgeois revolution of the 17th century. M., 1954. T. 1-2.Barg MA Great British revolution in the portraits of its leaders. M., 1991.Gizo F. History of the English Revolution: Trans. with fr. Rostov-on-Don, 1996. Ch 1-2.Whitelock B. Memorials of the English Affairs from the Beginning of the Reign of Charles I. Oxford, 1853. V. 1-4.The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1628-1660. Oxford, 1889.Ludlow Ed. The Memoirs, 1625-1672. Oxford, 1894. V. 1-2.Hill Chr. The World Turned Upside Down; Radical Ideas during the English Revolution. London, 1972.Hill Chr. The English Bible and the Seventeenth-Century Revolution. London; New York a. o., 1993. TA Pavlova Epsom salt, see. Magnesium sulfate English horn, alto oboe increased in the structure of F. English, the language of the British, the Americans (the official language of the United Kingdom and the United States), one of the two official languages of Canada, Ireland and Malta, the official language of Australia, New msg. Zealand. They are used by the population of some countries in Asia (India, Pakistan and others.) And Africa, in Vol. H. And as official languages. German group of Indo-European family of languages. The number of speakers approx. 450 million. People (1990). Official and working languages of the UN. Writing on the basis of the Latin alphabet. The Anglican Church, Protestant Church, which arose in the 16th century .; in the UK - the state. In the Anglican Church dogma combined provisions of Protestantism for the salvation of personal faith and Catholicism on the saving power of the church. According to the cult and organizational principles of the Catholic close. Church hierarchy headed by the king. BRITISH (self - Inglish), the people, the main population of the UK. The total number of 48.5 million. People (1992), in Vol. H. In the UK 44.7 million. People, Canada 1 million. People, Australia 940 thousand. Man US 650 thousand. Man, South Africa 230 thousand. Man India 200 thousand. man new. Zealand 188 thousand. Man. Language English. Believers - mostly Anglicans. ENGLAND (England, pozdnelat. Anglia), administrative and political part of the UK, its historic core. 131 thousand. Km2 (54% of the area of the state). 46.2 million. People (1991). The main city - London. Administratively divided into 39 counties and 6 metropolitan counties and B. London. Name from the ancient Germanic tribe England. Sometimes the name "England" is used to refer to the UK as a whole. ENGLISH-Australians, the people, the main population of Australia (St. 13.1 million. People). The total number of 13.4 million. People (1992). Speak Australian English. Believers - mostly Protestants. ANGLO-AMERICAN WAR 1812-14, began as a result of the desire to undermine the UK economy and the US Trade and expansionist policies of certain circles in the US, expects to capture Canada. American troops won the Lake. Erie (September 1813), Lake. Champlain (September 1814), and others. However, the English troops captured and burned much of Washington (August 1814). In 1814 in the city of Ghent was signed, restored the pre-war situation. Anglo-Afghan war, the war against the British in Afghanistan (1838-42, 1878-80, 1919). 1st ended in defeat Great Britain, 2nd - establishing British control over Afghanistan's foreign policy after the 3rd Great Britain recognized the independence of Afghanistan. ENGLISH-Africans, people in South Africa. The number of 1750 thousand. People (1992). The total number of 1950 thousand. People. They say the South African dialect of English. Believers - Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, and some - Catholics. Anglo-Burmese War, the war against the British in Burma in the 19th century. As a result, the 1st (1824-26) lost Burma region of Arakan and Tenasserim, after the 2nd (1852) - Bago region, as a result of the third (1885), all of Burma came under British rule. Boer War 1899-1902, the war against the British Boer republics South. Africa - Orange Free State and Transvaal. As a result of the war, the two republics have been converted (1902) in the English colonies. * Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902, the final stage lasted about 100 years of struggle for the establishment of British rule in South Africa. The immediate cause of the war was the issue of the political status of European immigrants who settled in the Republic of South Africa (Transvaal) in connection with the discovery of gold there. Received equal voting rights, immigrants could win elections to parliament (folksraad), which threatened the loss of Afrikaners political vlasti.Nachalo War September 10, 1899 Colonial Secretary George. Chamberlain in a telegram to the President of the Transvaal P. Kruger demanded enfranchisement all Europeans who have lived in the country at least 5 years. Ultimatum Chamberlain eventually pushed to the top of the armed conflict. October 11 Boer troops crossed the border of the Cape Colony and Natalya.V during November and December borax owned initiative. They laid siege to the city of Ladysmith, Kimberley, Mafeking and conducted several successful military operations. But their success was short-lived. Fracture After the failure of the first period of the war the British command began a mass movement of troops to South Africa and created a huge advantage in numbers of troops and equipment. At the end of February 1900, British troops lifted the siege of Ladysmith and with Kimberley in April captured the capital of the Free State Bloemfontein, in May deblocked Mafeking, in June occupied the capital of the Transvaal - Pretoria. However, this was not a war konchilas.Rukovodstvo Boer army moved to other tactics of military operations - a guerrilla war, which lasted almost two years. Boer leaders have repeatedly tried to achieve performances powers -Germany, France, USA, Russia - to end the war on terms acceptable to the republics conditions. The governments of these countries declared sympathy with the Boers, but because each of them wanted to use the difficulties of England in their own interests, no collective intervention failed. Boers delegation visited the United States and Europe. Public opinion is usually on the side of the little people, who opposed strong and powerful Britain. Hundreds of volunteers from the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, USA, Russia went to South Africa and fought on the side of the Boers. The outcome of the war vast superiority of the British army and great losses among the civilian population forced the Boer commanders to negotiate. May 31, 1902 peace treaty was signed by which republics became British colonies (Transvaal and Orange River Colony). The British, in turn, made concessions to the Boers in the "indigenous" issue, abandoning their earlier promises of political rights for non-whites. Experience the Boer War was used by army circles of various countries. There were first used to achieve such military technology of the 19th century. As smokeless powder, machine guns, explosive bullets dumdum. Widespread since then received skirmishing during the attack, khaki "khaki" in uniforms of soldiers, field telegraph and barbed wire. The practice of concentration camps for the civilian population also began in this war. As a result of the Anglo-Boer war, the entire South Africa was ruled by England, May 31, 1910 was officially proclaimed the creation of a single South African Dominion - Union of South Africa (Union of South Africa), is in the British Empire to 961.Literatura: Augustus EF Memories member Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1900. Warsaw, 1902.Gurko VI War of England with South Africa, 1899-1901 // Report .. seconded to the troops of South Africa .. Colonel Romeyko-Gurke. SPb., 1901.Izetdinova SV few months Boers: Memories of the Sisters of Charity. SPb., 1903.Sb. materials for the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa / ed. Colonel Artamonov. SPb., 1900-1905. Vol. 1-21.Davidson AB Cecil Rhodes and his time. M., 1984.Nikitina IA Capture the Boer republics England (1899-1902). M., 1970.Amery LS The Times History of the War in South Africa. London, 1909. V. 6.Kandyba-Foxoroft E. Russia and the Anglo-Boor War 1899-1902. Pretoria, 1981.The Oxford History of South Africa. Oxford, 1971. V. 2, 1870-1966.R. Vyatkina Anglo-Dutch War 17 in., Caused by economic and trade and colonial rivalry between two of the most developed in the 17th century. states - England and the Dutch Republic 1st - 1652-54, 2nd - 1665-67, 3rd - 1672-74. Were mostly at sea. Contributed to the weakening of the Dutch Republic and the transition economy, trade and colonial hegemony to England. ENGLISH-Egyptian treaty in 1936, of friendship and alliance. Several extending independence of Egypt in internal and external affairs, retained the main British military position in Egypt. Denounced Egypt in 1951; Great Britain recognized its abolition in 1954. ANGLO-Iraq contracts and agreements. Treaty in 1922 legalized the credentials dependence of Iraq from the UK. Treaty in 1930, providing for the abolition of the mandate and recognizing the sovereignty of Iraq, in fact retained his dependent position of the United Kingdom in the field of foreign policy and military affairs. The agreement replaced the 1955 Treaty of 1930. Great Britain retained control of the Iraqi army and air bases. Denounced Iraq after the Iraqi revolution of 1958 Anglo-Irish UNION 1801 abolished the autonomous Irish Parliament; Irish representatives allotted a certain number of seats in the Parliament of Great Britain. Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921, provides a large part of Ireland dominion status while retaining British rule over the north-eastern part - Ulster (see. Northern Ireland). ENGLISH-Canadians, people in Canada (10.8 million. People). The total number of 11,670,000. People (1992). Speak Canadian English. Believers - mostly Protestants, part - Catholics. Anglo-Chinese War 1840-42 (Vol. N. The first "Opium War"), the invasion of the British armed forces in China (the capture of a number of coastal cities), marked the beginning of its transformation into a semi-colony. Ended with the Treaty of Nanking 1842. Anglo-Mysore Wars, the British East India Company for the capture of the Indian principality of Mysore. As a result, the 1st (1767-69) and the 2nd (1780-84) Mysore managed to preserve its independence, after the third (1790-92) from Mysore torn away part of the territory as a result of the 4th (1799) transformed into Mysore English vassal. ENGLISH-Maratha War, the British East India Company against the Union Maratha principalities in India in 1775-82, 1803-05 and 1817-18. Much of the territory was invaded by the Marathas, some British principality became vassals. ENGLISH-New Zealanders (New Zealanders, Pakeha) people, the general population new. Zealand (2.6 million. People). The total number of 2,760,000. People (1992). Language English. Believers - mostly Anglicans. Anglo-Saxons, the conquest of Celtic Britain by Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians in 5-6 centuries. By the end. 6. has developed a number of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Eastern. England, Northumbria, Mercia). Anglo-Saxons, the common name of the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, who won 5-6 centuries. Britain. In 7-10 centuries. there was an Anglo-Saxon nation, absorbed and Celtic elements. Later, the Anglo-Saxons, mixed with the Danes, Norwegians and (after the Norman conquest of England in 1066) came from France, marked the beginning of British nationality. ENGLISH-Sikh War, the British East India Company against the State of Sikhs in Punjab in 1845-46 and 1848-49. Sikh state ceased to exist, and Punjab captured by the British. Anglo-Soviet-Iranian treaty of alliance, signed 01.29.1942 after the temporary entry of Soviet and British troops in Iran to prevent Nazi Germany to use its territory in the war against the Soviet Union and Great Britain. Provided Iran's cooperation with the anti-Hitler coalition during the 2nd World War; after the war, the Allied troops were withdrawn from Iran. ENGLISH-Transjordan (Jordanian) of the Treaty. Treaty in 1928, formally giving power in Transjordan (Mandate territory of the UK) Emir established British control over its foreign policy, finance and the armed forces. Treaty in 1946 formally repealed the British mandate on Transjordan, which was declared an independent kingdom, but reserves the right to keep the UK troops and build military bases on the territory of Transjordan. 1948 Treaty continued dependence Jordan from Britain, some extending the competence of the Jordanian authorities. Canceled in 1957. The Anglo-French-Israeli aggression against Egypt (1956), was designed to capture the Suez Canal. October 29, Israeli troops invaded Egypt; October 31 British and French forces began bombing Egypt and 5 November landed troops in the area of Port Said. Preventive measures on the part of the USSR, the US and the UN was forced Britain and France to withdraw its troops from Egypt in December 1956, Israel - in March 1957. Anglo-Franco-Japanese War 1856-60 (Vol. N. The second "opium" war), the UK and France against China. In 1857-58 the British and French occupied Guangzhou and forts on the coast of the Bohai Doug Hall., In 1860 - Tianjin and Beijing. Britain and France were imposed on China Tianjin and the 1858 Treaty of Peking 1860. Anglo-French-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT secret. Issued in the form of exchange of the memorandum and a note verbale in April - May 1915 provides for the transfer of Istanbul and the Black Sea straits Russia provided its participation in the war with Germany to a victorious end. Revoked the Decree on Peace in 1917.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM NIETZSCHE / ФРИДРИХ ВИЛЬГЕЛЬМ НИЦШЕ
НИЦШЕ / NIETZSCHE / ЕССЕ HOMO / ВОЛЯ К ВЛАСТИ / К ГЕНЕАЛОГИИ МОРАЛИ / СУМЕРКИ ИДОЛОВ /
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