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Spanish American wars of independence, the armed struggle of the Spanish-American peoples for liberation from colonial rule (1810-26). Prerequisites caused discontent of the general population policies and bans discrimination on the part of the metropolis, a brake on economic development of the colonies; beginning of the war also contributed to the awakening of national consciousness, the impact of the War of Independence in North America (1775-83), the French Revolution, a slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue (1791-1803). The immediate cause was the events in Spain in 1808, following the invasion of Napoleon I. In 1809 there were riots in Chuquisaca (now Sucre), La Paz and other regions of Upper Peru (now Bolivia), in Quito, there was anti-Spanish conspiracy in Valladolid (now Morelia , Mexico). Although success has not been achieved anywhere else, the situation has deteriorated in the colonies. News of the defeat of the Spanish troops in the metropolis (beginning in 1810) and the occupation of most of the country were the signal for the French armed actions in the Spanish Amerike.Venesuela and New Granada (1810-15) April 19, 1810 a rebellion broke out in Caracas, came to power, the Supreme Junta government. March 2, 1811 opened the National Congress, July 5, proclaimed the independence of Venezuela and 21 December adopted the republican constitution. In connection with the coming of the Spanish troops in April 1812 commander of the armed forces of the republic was appointed Francisco de Miranda, but after a series of military setbacks, he capitulated. Almost simultaneously with Venezuela revolutionary movement seized New Granada (now Colombia). July 20, 1810 in the capital Bogota uprising began, and March 30, 1811 it was announced the creation of a "State of Cundinamarca", presided over by the A. Nariño. Other provinces in November 1811 in the united confederation of the United Provinces of New Granada, with the center of Cartagena. With the support of the Confederate government of Cundinamarca and was released on a significant part of Venezuela, and in August 1813 founded 2nd Venezuelan republic headed by S. Bolivar. But by the end of 1814, it fell under the onslaught of the Spaniards, who relied on the assistance of semi-wild shepherds Llanera led by HT Boves. By May 1816 Morillo expeditionary force to restore the power of Spain and New Granada. Revolutionary events in the Rio de la Plata (1810-15) in the capital of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata in Buenos Aires, May 25, 1810 patriots removed the viceroy and establish provisional government junta headed by K. Saavedra. Her attempts to subjugate the entire territory of the Rio de la Plata met with resistance of individual provinces. In Paraguay, the local militia broke the Buenos Aires army M. Belgrano (January 1811). In May 1811 it was abolished by the colonial administration, and in 1813 established a republican system. In 1814, "the Supreme Dictator of the Republic" was Dr. H. G. Francia. The population of East Coast (now Uruguay) under the leadership of HH Artigas from February 1811 led the fight against the Spanish, and then invaded Brazilian Portuguese troops. This struggle was complicated by the contradictions between the Uruguayans, strive to create a federation of autonomous provinces laplatskoy and Buenos -Ayresom, seek education unitary state. Delegates East Coast were not admitted to the General Constituent Assembly of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (January 1813), and by the early 1815 controversy resulted in an armed conflict. Buenos Aires army has repeatedly suffered defeat in Upper Peru. Chile (1810-15), Chile September 18, 1810 was dismissed Captain-General, and its functions were transferred to the Government junta. But the latter did not dare to complete rupture with Spain, which required a radical wing patriots. Using these differences, the Spaniards transferred reinforcements from Peru, and in October 1814 the Chileans defeated at the Battle of Rancagua. Soon the country was restored colonial rezhim.Novaya Spain (1810-15) in New Spain (now Mexico) uprising, which began September 16, 1810, led by a priest M. Hidalgo. Within a month, insurgents occupied a vast territory, and in late October their 80,000th army came to Mexico City. But Hidalgo did not dare to storm the city and went to Guadalajara, where decrees issued the Emancipation Proclamation, the abolition of the poll tax, the elimination of trade monopolies, the return of land taken away from the Indians. These measures have led most of the Creole landowners and merchants, many officials and officers who participated in the uprising, to the side of the Spaniards, which facilitated the defeat of the revolutionary army (beginning in 1811); its leaders were captured and executed. But soon the patriots led by priest JM Morelos renewed fighting and achieved considerable success. National Congress of Chilpancingo in the November 6, 1813, declared the independence of New Spain, and October 22, 1814 in Apatsingane adopted a constitution input device republican and declared the equality of citizens before the law, freedom of speech and press. Until the end of 1815 royalists managed to dispel the main rebel forces and deal with Morelos. By that time, most of Spanish America, with the exception of the Rio de la Plata, has been restored power metropolii.Osvobozhdenie Venezuela and New Granada (1816-22) Since 1816 in South America began a new rise of the liberation movement. During 1817-18 squads Bolivar liberated a large part of Venezuela. This was facilitated by the abolition of slavery (1816), the decrees on the confiscation of property of the Spanish Crown and the royalists, on the allotment of land soldiers Liberation Army (September-October 1817), as well as the transition Llanera under the command of Juan Antonio Paez on the side of the insurgents and the accession to many former slaves. Convened February 15, 1819 in Angostura (now Ciudad Bolivar) National Congress once again declared the independence of Venezuela, Bolivar's troops then crossed the Andes and 7 August defeated the Spaniards on the river Boyaca, and then came to Bogota, completing the liberation of most of New Granada. In December 1819, Congress passed Angostursky Basic Law, which provided for the union of Venezuela, New Granada and Quito (today Ecuador), the Federal Republic of Colombia (often referred to in the literature of the Great Colombia). February 27, 1820 Assembly of New Granada approved the decision. Defeating the Spanish troops of Carabobo (24 June 1821), the Patriots completed the rout of the main forces in Venezuela. August 30, 1821 the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of Cúcuta in Colombia, proclaimed full independence, and elected president of Bolivar. In October last Colombians captured enemy fortifications on the coast of New Granada - Cartagena, and in November was cleared of the enemy Panama. In May 1822 in Colombia joined Kito.Polozhenie territory on the Rio de la Plata and hiking in Chile (1816-18) in the south of the continent's Congress of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata in Tucumán July 9, 1816 announced their independence. With the acquiescence of the Buenos Aires government in August, the Portuguese invaded the Eastern Province (name East Coast since 1815) and partially occupied it. Artigas broke the resistance groups, they are attached to the country of Brazil (1821). In early 1817 the Andean army H. de San Martin made the transition through the Andes and February 12 defeated the Spanish forces in the Battle of Chacabuco (Chile). Elected supreme ruler B. O'Higgins February 12, 1818 declared the independence of Chile, the final consolidation of the victory of the patriots at Maipú (5 April), .Provozglashenie independence of Peru (1820-22) In September 1820 the troops of San Martin landed in Peru, and by July 1821 liberated a large part of the country. Its independence was proclaimed in Lima on July 28 and San Martin was the "protector" of the new state. To complete the liberation of Peru, he tried to enlist the help of Colombia. But his talks with Bolivar in Guayaquil (26-27 July 1822) did not lead to an agreement, then San Martin resigned before the Peruvian Congress (September 20, 1822), and later went to Europe. The armed struggle against the Spanish in Peru prodolzhalas.Novaya Spain and Central America (1816-24) in New Spain in 1820 under the influence of the revolution in the South American metropolis and colonies success has been a rise of the liberation movement. Conservative elite headed by A. Iturbide, wanting to preserve the old order, has begun to make separation from revolutionary Spain. A few months Iturbide army took almost all major centers and entered into Mexico, where the September 28, 1821 was proclaimed an independent Mexican Empire. In May 1822 Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor Augustine I. But the empire was short-lived, and after its collapse (March 1823) established a republican system established by the Constitution 1824. After independence, a number of Spanish colonies intensified the liberation movement in the Captaincy General of Guatemala. September 15, 1821 in the capital, it was announced on the separation from the mother country. But in July 1822 the Mexican Congress, said the inclusion of Central America in the empire of Iturbide, and by early 1823 its annexation was essentially completed. With the collapse of the empire Constituent Assembly of representatives of the provinces of the former Captaincy General 1 July 1823 declared the formation of an independent federal republic of the United Provinces of Central America (under the constitution 1824 - Federation of Central America) .Osvobozhdenie Peru and the end of the war (1824-26) By the beginning of 1824 the last bastion of Spanish rule on the American continent was Peru, where the actions of insurgents led by Bolivar, which the Peruvian Congress on February 10 appointed dictator gave him unlimited military and civil authorities. Formed by numerous strong army, August 6, 1824, he defeated the Spaniards at Junin, and on December 9 their last big grouping was broken troops AH de Sucre on the plain of Ayacucho. In February 1825 the army of Sucre liberated Upper Peru. Proclaimed its sovereignty on August 6 in Chuquisaca the Constituent Assembly, the supreme authority of the transferor Bolivar, after whom the new republic called Bolivia. Were soon eliminated the remaining pockets of resistance to the Spaniards in America in November 1825 surrendered the garrison of San Juan de Ulua (Mexico), and in January 1826 - the fortress of Callao and Spanish forces on the island Chiloe.Itogi and value As a result of the War of Independence American possessions Spain (except Cuba and Puerto Rico) got rid of colonial oppression and became a sovereign state. During the war, the republic emerged: the United Mexican States, the Federation of Central America, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Bolivia. Later, this process was completed in the region of the Rio de la Plata, with the exception of Paraguay, which gained independence in 1811. The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata in the early 1820 virtually collapsed. Only 6 February 1826 Founding Congress in Buenos Aires passed a law on the establishment of a common government, and on 24 December the same year approved the constitution of Argentina (since became known as the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata). Uruguayan patriots only in 1828 achieved recognition of their statehood (according to the constitution in 1830 - the Oriental Republic of Uruguay). As a result of the liberation war of 1810-26 was over monopolies, restrictions and regulations, chilling economic development of the colonies, more favorable conditions for the involvement of Spanish America into the world economy. Were abolished the poll tax and labor service of the indigenous population in most countries abolished slavery. In the newly emerging states was established republican, parliamentary system and adopted a constitution. Important were the destruction of the Inquisition, the abolition of titles of nobility and other feudal attributes. The war for independence wore essentially the nature of anti-colonial revolution. It has not led (with rare exceptions) to fundamental changes socio-economic structure of the countries of Spanish America, but stimulated the growth of national consciousness, to accelerate the formation and consolidation of the Spanish-American natsiy.Literatura: The War of Independence in Latin America (1810-1826). M., MS 1964.Alperovich Spanish America's struggle for independence. M., J. 1971.Linch. Revolution in Spanish America. 1808-1826. M., 1979.Torrente M. Historia de la revolucion Hispano-Americana. Madrid, 1829-30. T. 1-3.Calvo C. Anales historicos de la revolucion de la America Latina. Paris, 1864-67. T. 1-5.El movimiento emancipador de Hispanoamerica. Caracas, 1961. T. 1-4.El pensamiento constitucional hispanoamericano hasta 1830. Caracas, 1961. T. I-5.Anna TE Spain and the Loss of America. Lincoln; London, 1983.Las actas de independencia de America. Washington, 1955.M. S. Al'perovich War South and North Dynasty (1336-1392) in Japan. In 1333 Minamoto shogunate was overthrown, and for a short time established imperial power. Emperor Godaigo tried to manage alone, but could not eliminate the conflict between the aristocrats and warriors, infringe upon the interests of the latter. One of the largest feudal Ashikaga Takauji two years later started a riot that led to the formation of the second Shogunate - Ashikaga (or Muromachi, the title quarter of Kyoto, where the military government was located). With the transition of power to the Ashikaga began internecine war that lasted almost until the end of the century. Emperor Godaigo fled to the mountains, was founded in the town of South Yoshino yard and planted Ashikaga in Kyoto to the throne of Emperor Kome, who led the Northern yard. Dvoetsarstvie lasted until 1392, when both were united dynasty, and once again became the capital of Kyoto. Voynarovsky Andrew (? - C. 1740), Ukrainian Cossack, nephew Mazepa, a member of his conspiracy. Fled to Germany. In 1718 issued by the Russian government and exiled to Yakutsk. Voynich (Voynich) Ethel Lilian (1864-1960), British novelist. Daughter of George. Bull. In 1887-89 lived in Russia, was connected with the Polish and Russian revolutionary movement. Since 1920 in the US. In the novel "The Gadfly" (1897), "The Gadfly in Exile" (1910; other translations - "Interrupted Friendship") is a heroic image of the Italian revolutionary. The novel "Take off your shoes" (1945) - the ancestors of the protagonist previous novels. Translation of Russian literature. The theme of her musical oratorio "Babylon" (1948) - the overthrow of the autocracy in Russia. Vladimir Voinovich (b. 1932), the Russian writer. In 1980-92 in exile in Germany. In the novel "The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of Private Ivan Chonkin" (1969-75) and its sequel "pretender to the throne" (1979) - satirical ridicule of totalitarianism; image "Ivan the Fool" - the media of national morality and common sense. Documentary satirical novel "Ivankiad" (1976; all three works in Russia before 1988 were not printed) - to "Apartment" theme, reveals the mechanism of bureaucracy. Satirical novel, dystopia "Moscow 2042" (1987). The play "Cat average home fluffy" (1990, together with the GI Gorin). Poems (in Vol. H. "Song of astronauts"), the story ("Two Friends", 1967), journalism. VOYNORALSKY Porphyry Ivanovich (1844-98), a revolutionary populist. One of the organizers of "going to the people." In 1878, sentenced to 10 years in prison. Voice (Voysey) Charles Francis Exley (1857-1941), English architect. Designed a small country houses for the middle class. Developed the theme of the traditional English cottage (single rectangular volume with a superstructure and a high gable roof). The decoration of the building and interior decoration big role different types of decorative art. Air defense forces, designed to reflect enemy air attack. Consist of combat arms: anti-aircraft missile forces, air defense forces and radio, as well as special forces for various purposes. Army circle, Military meeting the Don, Volga, Yaik, Greben and Terek Cossacks at 16-18 centuries. Is the supreme authority and elected officials. An army captain, an officer's rank in the Cossack troops of the Russian army; 1775 corresponded to rank second major, from 1798 - Major, 1884 - Lieutenant. Vojislav G. Sigismund (1850-1904), a Russian mining engineer. Invented the hand-drill for exploration. One of the founders of the Russian Society of Mining Engineers. VOYTES (Voites) Margaret (b. 1936), Estonian singer (soprano), People's Artist of the USSR (1979). Since 1964, the soloist of the Estonian Theatre "Vanemuine", from 1969 to the Opera and Ballet Theatre "Estonia". Bogdan Wojciechowski V. (b. 1922), the Russian scientist, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991). Major works on theoretical and applied hydrodynamics, detonation in gases. Lenin Prize (1965). Vocalise (fr. Vocalise, from Lat. Vocalis - vowel), a piece of music for singing without words with a vowel sound; usually exercise for the development of vocal technique. Known and vocalize for concert performance (Rachmaninov, Ravel and others.). Vowels, part of vowel phonemes of a language, dialect or family, a group of languages. Sometimes speaks also of vocalism root words, and so. N. Vocal music, works for one, several or many voices (with instrumental accompaniment or without it), with a few exceptions related to the word, the poetic text. Vocal art, see. Singing. Vaucanson (Vaucanson) Jacques de (1709-1782), a French engineer. Constructed a mechanical silk weaving machine, created a series of machines with watch movements (in Vol. H. Known Toys - fluttering duck and playing flutist). STATION (from Eng. Vauxhall), 1) an entertainment facility near London (17 in.); initially in Russia - a place of public entertainment. 2) House (complex of buildings), structures and facilities for passengers, traffic control and placement service personnel. Distinguish bus stations, terminals, rail, sea, river, as well as combined, or complex (eg., Rail and bus). Vauquelin (Vauquelin) Louis Nicolas (1763-1829), French chemist. Opened (1797) and highlighted (1798) in a free state chromium; opened (1798) beryllium. Vocoder (from the English. Voice - voice and code - code), the communication system in which the transmitted voice data is converted into code analyzer audio signals by frequency or by time. Restoring speech at the receiving end carries a synthesizer sound. Can significantly (about 10 times) to seal the communication line with a slight deterioration in the quality of transmission. Vaucouleurs (Vaucouleurs) Gerard Henri de (b. 1918), American astronomer. Explore Mars, has developed a new classification of galaxies discovered the rotation of the galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud, described the Virgo Supercluster. Author of "Physics of Mars" (1951; Russian translation, 1956), "Astronomy Picture" (1961; Russian translation, 1975), and others. PAR, castrated male cattle. Is used as a working animal and meat. Ox (French. Volant), 1) the ball with feathers badminton. 2) Finish for women's dresses, blouses, skirts, ruffles race. VOLGA (ancient - Ra, in the Middle Ages - Itil), a river in the European part of the Russian Federation, the largest in Europe. 3530 km, the basin area of 1360 thousand. Km2. Start the Valdai Upland., Flows into the Caspian m., Forming a delta (the area of 19 thousand. Km2). Average water consumption in Volgograd 724 m3 / s, in the mouth - 7710 m3 / s. Volga takes approx. 200 tributaries, the largest - Kama and Oka. In connection with the construction of cascade reservoirs with the Volga flow strongly regulated. The largest hydroelectric power station - Volga (Kuibyshev) Volga (Volgograd), Cheboksary. Regular shipping from Rzhev (3256 km). Volga is connected with the Baltic m. Volga-Baltic waterway, the White m. - Northern Dvina water system and the White Sea-Baltic Canal, with the Azov and Black Seas - Volga-Don canal, with Moscow - channel them. Moscow. On the Volga - the largest city of Tver, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Ulyanovsk, Samara, Saratov, Volgograd, Astrakhan. In the bass. Volga reserves: Volga-Kama, Zhigulevsky, Astrakhan; Natural National Park Samara Bend. As a result of anthropogenic impacts sharply deteriorated environmental conditions; being sought scientifically sound ways to restore natural systems of the Volga. VOLGIN Vyacheslav Petrovich (1879-1962), Russian historian, academician of the USSR (1930). Works on the history of the socialist and communist ideas pre-Marxian period. Lenin Prize (1961). VOLGIN Igor Leonidovich (b. 1942), the Russian poet, literary critic. The main area of interest: the life and work of Fyodor Dostoevsky. Documentary and biographical studies, in Vol. H. "Last year Dostoevsky" (1986). Collections of poetry: "Excitement" (1965), "Ring Road" (1970), "Six in the morning" (1975). VOLGA, lake, the largest in the Upper Volga lakes in the Valdai Upland. 61 km2. Volga-Baltic Waterway (b. Mariinsky water system), in the Russian Federation. Connects the Volga with the Baltic m., And in the White Sea-Baltic Canal with the White m. Passes through the Rybinsk Reservoir. to Cherepovets, p. Sheksna Belozersky Canal, p. Kovzha Mariinsky channel, p. Vytegra, Onega Canal, p. Svir, Lake Ladoga. and p. Neva. Mariinsky water system was built in the beginning. 19 in .; since 1964, after a major renovation - Volga-Baltic Waterway. Length approx. 1,100 km, the depth of not less than 4 m. Vessels up to 5,000 tons. Volgograd (until 1925 Tsaritsyn until 1961 Stalingrad), the hero-city in the Russian Federation, the center of Volgograd region. Port on the Volga. The starting point of the Volga-Don Canal. Railway junction. 1005 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Mechanical engineering (software: "Volgograd Tractor Factory," "Barricades" et al.) And metal, black (factory "Red October" and others.) And non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical, woodworking, construction materials, light and food industries. Near Volgograd - Volga (Volgograd) HPP. 7 high schools (in Vol. H. 3 University), 5 theaters. Museums (monument-ensemble "Heroes of Stalingrad Battle" on Mamayev Hill, the Museum of defense, homeland, Fine Arts, and others.). Founded in 1589, 1615 at the present location. During the Great Patriotic War almost completely destroyed, rebuilt under the general plan (1945). Volgograd Region, Russian Federation, 113.9 thousand. Km2. Population 2,643 thous. People (1992), urban 76%. 19 cities, 32 urban-type settlements (1989). Center - Volgograd. The Volga River divides the region into a sublime Right Bank (height up to 358 m) and lowlands Zavolzhe. The average January temperature of -8 to -12 ° C and in July 23 ° C. Precipitation approx. 350 mm. The main rivers - the Volga and the Don. Oil and gas production; oil refining, chemical and petrochemical industry, machinery (tractors, ships, bearings, industrial machinery and others.), ferrous and non-ferrous metals; building materials, woodworking, light and food industries. Volga (Volgograd) HPP. Crops of wheat and other cereals, sunflower, mustard. Melon (watermelon), vegetable growing. Fruit. Irrigated agriculture. Meat and dairy cattle, sheep. Navigation on the Volga, Don, Volga-Don canal. VOLGOGRADSKIJj Theater. Gorky Drama Theatre, founded in 1918. VOLGOGRADSKIJj University, founded in 1980 to train specialists in physical and mathematical sciences, philology, history. In 1991 St. 3 thousand. Students. Volgograd Reservoir, at p. Volga. Formed by the dam of the Volga (Volgograd) HPP. Completed in 1958-1961. The area of 3117 km2, the volume of 31.5 km3, the length of 540 km, the maximum width of 17 km. Shipping. Used for water supply and irrigation. Fishing. Ports: Saratov, Kamyshin. VOLGODONSK, city (1956) in the Russian Federation, Rostov region., A port on the Tsimlyanskii Reservoir. Railway station. 182 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Atomic power engineering "ATOMMASH"; chemical and food industry. Museum. Volga-Ural oil and gas province in the east of the Urals is bounded in the south - the Caspian Depression, in the north - the Timan Ridge in the west - Sysola, Tinkers, Tokmovskim vaults and the Voronezh massif. The total area of 700 thousand. Km2. Open communication. 900 oil and 50 gas fields. Industrial deposits are confined to the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Major Field: Romashkinskoye, Orenburg, Tuymazinskoe, Shkapovskoe, Arlanskoe et al. VOLLEYBALL (English. Volley ball), Team Sports ball game on the court 9 x 18 m, divided in half grid (at the height of 2.43 m for men and 2 24 m for women's competition). The game tends punches the ball to land on his opponent's half. Originated in the US (1895). The International Federation (FIVV; founded in 1947), 210 countries (1994). In the program of the Olympic Games since 1964, the World Championships since 1949, Europe since 1948. Volzhansky (pres. Fam. Volzhankiny), a family of circus performers, tightrope walkers. Head Room - Vladimir (1917-83), People's Artist of the USSR (1979). Developed equipment, change the angle of the ropes, gave complex equilibristics attraction romantic character. Partners - family members Volchanskies. USSR State Prize (1978). Volzhsky (until 1940 the village. Lopatino), a city in the Russian Federation, the Republic of Mari El, a marina at the Kuibyshev Reservoir. Railway station. 62.5 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Mechanical engineering and metal; pulp and paper and wood industry. Volga Flotilla in June 1918 - July 1919 participated in the battles with the Whites on the Volga and Kama, then became part of the Volga-Caspian Flotilla. During World War II there was in October 1941 - June 1944, participated in the Battle of Stalingrad. Volga Cossacks, originally from runaway peasants N. Volga in the 16th century. In 1733-77 there were Volgskoe Cossack army with center Dubovka (approx. Tsaritsyn); part of the Volga Cossacks were resettled in the North. Caucasus (in the Terek Cossack Army), part is attached to the beginning. 19 in. to Astrakhan army. VOLGA, city (1954) in the Russian Federation, Moscow and Moscow region., A port on the Volga River, at the beginning of Akhtuba. Railway station. 281 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Originated in 1951 in connection with the construction of the Volga (Volgograd) HPP. Oil refining, petrochemical, chemical, engineering and others. Industry. City History Museum. Volga-Kama reserve, in Tatarstan. Founded in 1960. The area of 8040 hectares. 2 area: Raif - to the north-west of Kazan - the 200-year-old forests, typical of the middle belt of the European part of the Russian Federation, and Saralovsky - on the banks of the Kuibyshev Reservoir. - Pine and mixed forests. Moose, fox, marten, raccoon dog; hazel grouse, gray crane. Volga-Caspian Flotilla existed in July 1919 - July 1920. It was formed through the merger of the Volga and Astrakhan-Caspian Flotilla. Participated in the defense of Astrakhan, the liberation of the Caucasus and Caspian m. From the White Guards and interventionists. Volga-Finnic languages (Volga Finno-Ugric languages), conditional classification name of Mordovia and Mari languages belonging to the Finno-Ugric family. Wolin (Wolin), a town in Poland, on an island in the estuary. Audra. Arose in the context. 8 in., In the 10-12 centuries. - Trade and craft center and the port, the city republic. Remains of fortifications, derevolyutsionnyh buildings and bridges. Wolf (gray wolf), a carnivorous mammal of the family of wolves. The body length of 105-160 cm., The tail - up to 50 cm. Colouring hair more gray. Was widely distributed in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, but in many places disappeared. Lives in the steppes (the most numerous), tundra, forests, mountains. Strong, tireless and intelligent predator. It feeds on ungulates, rodents, hares, in the summer willingly eats birds and a variety of fruit. Kept singly, in pairs (formed for life) or in family groups; sometimes combined in flocks of 10-12 individuals. In the litter usually 4-6 cubs. Hybrids with dogs - volkosobaki - cause significant damage to the hunting fauna. In the Red Book of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Volkenshtein Ludmila (1857-1906), a revolutionary narodnitsa. A participant of the assassination of the governor of the Kharkiv DN Kropotkin. In 1884, sentenced to 15 years in prison. Participant of the Revolution of 1905-07. Died in Vladivostok while shooting demonstration. Wolves, genus of carnivorous mammals of the family of wolves. 7 species of wolf, jackal, coyote, red wolf, domestic dog, and others. In Eurasia, Africa Centre. America, Greenland; in Russia 2 species - the wolf and jackal. 3 species and 1 subspecies in the Red Book of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Distinct genera (each 1 species) - red wolves and maned wolf. Volkov Alexander (b. 1948), a Russian cosmonaut, Soviet cosmonaut (1985), Colonel, Hero of the Soviet Union (1985). Flying on "Soyuz T-14" and orbital station "Salyut-7" (September - November 1985), "Soyuz TM-7" and the orbital complex "Mir" (November 1988 - April 1989), on the "Soyuz TM-13 "and orbital station" Mir "(October 1991 - March 1992). Volkov Alexander (1905-65), the Russian aircraft designer automatic weapons. With SA Yartseva created in 1940 air gun 23 mm with a rate of 600 rounds per minute, called "QI" (an abbreviation of Volkov and Yartsev). USSR State Prize (1942). WOLVES Melent'evich Alexander (1891-1977), Russian writer. Mathematician by training. Best known as the author of a cycle of fairy tales for children: "The Wizard of Oz" (1939, based on - a book of American children's writer F. Baum "Sage of Oz"), "Urfin Jus and his Wooden Soldiers" (1963), "Seven underground Kings "(1964)," The Fiery god Marranos "(1968) and others. Tale (" two Brothers ", 1950;" The Adventures of two friends in the country of the past ", 1963;" Tsar grad Captive ", 1969) and novels (" Architects "1954;" Wandering ", 1963, of John. Bruno) on historical subjects. Popular science books of short stories ("Earth and Sky", 1957, et al.). WOLVES Alexander N. (b. 1929), Russian statesman and military leader, Marshal of Aviation (1989). Since 1948 in the Soviet Army, in command positions in the Air Force. Since 1979, the commander of the Military Transport Aviation, since 1986, Deputy Chief of the Air Force. In 1987-90 the Minister of Civil Aviation of the USSR. Volkov Alexander (1886-1957), Russian and Uzbek painter, People's Artist of Uzbekistan (1946). Saturated color decorative and colorful paintings ("Pomegranate Teahouse", 1924), national character ("collective farmer", 1933). Volkov Boris Ivanovich (1900-70), a Russian theater artist, People's Artist of the USSR (1965). Combines picturesque scenery and volume, introduced lyrical landscapes (opera "Taras Family" Kabalevsky in Musical Theater. Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, 1951). USSR State Prize (1949, 1951, 1952). WOLVES Valentin V. (1881-1964), the Belarusian painter, People's Artist of Belarus (1955). Theme song ("Vuzovtsy", 1947; "Minsk on July 3, 1944 ', 1946-55). Vladislav Volkov (1935-71), a Russian cosmonaut, Soviet cosmonaut (1969), twice Hero of the Soviet Union (1969, 1971 - posthumously). Flying on "Soyuz-7" (October 1969), "Soyuz-11" and orbital station "Salyut" (June 1971). Was killed while returning to Earth. WOLVES Lev Ivanovich (b. 1930), the Russian scientist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991). Proceedings of the integrated mathematical modeling and evaluation of nonlinear dynamical systems of aircraft and space rocket vehicles. Oleg Volkov (1900-1996), Russian writer. "Dive into the darkness" (1987; State Prize of the Russian Federation, 1991) - documentary about the tragic fate of people - victims of Stalinist repression. The theme of nature protection in the novels, stories, journalism. The book "Every stone live in it. From the history of the streets of Moscow" (1985). Translations. Fyodor Volkov (1729-63), actor and theatrical figure. In 1750 in Yaroslavl organized amateur troupe (actors IA Dmitrevsky, YD Shumsky), on which in 1756 in St. Petersburg was founded the first permanent Russian professional public theater. Played tragedies AP Sumarokov. Volkovyskii, a city in Belarus, Grodno., At p. Ross. Railway junction. 42 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Plant foundry equipment, etc .; ON materials; food industry. Military History Museum. Bagration. Known since the 13th century. Volkogon Dmitry Antonovich (1928-1995), Russian historian, Doctor of History and Philosophy, Professor, Colonel-General (1986). Since 1984, the deputy chief of the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Navy. In 1988-91 Head of the Institute of Military History of the Ministry of Defence. Since 1991 the chairman of several committees of the Government of the Russian Federation and President of the Russian Federation. Works on the history, philosophy, policy issues. Volkonskaya Zinaida Alexandrovna (1789-1862), Duchess, Russian writer. Volkonskaya salon in Moscow in 1826-27 attended Pushkin. In 1829 went to Italy. Poems, novels in Russian, French, Italian. Volkonskaya Maria Nikolaevna (1805-63), the princess, the daughter of General NNRaevsky wife Decembrists SG Volkonsky, a friend of Alexander Pushkin, who devoted her poems. In 1827 followed her husband in Transbaikalia. The author of "Notes". Volkonsky Andrew M. (b. 1933), the Russian composer. Acted as a harpsichordist and organist. Founder and artistic director of the ensemble of ancient music "Madrigal" (1964-73, Moscow). Chamber cantata "Suite Mirror" (1960), "Complaints Schazy" (1964), works for chamber orchestra, instrumental ensemble, piano. Volkonsky Mikhail Nikolayevich (1860-1917), Prince, Russian writer, playwright. Satirical opera "Vampuka, African Princess" (1900; see. Art. "Vampuka ..."). Historical novels and stories ("The Maltese chain", 1891; "The will of Destiny", 1893; "The Ring of the Empress" 1896 et al.); stories, satires, plays. Pyotr Volkonsky (1776-1852), the Russian Field Marshal (1850), His Serene Highness Prince (1834), honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1813). Member of the Patriotic War of 1812. From 1826 the Minister of the Imperial Court and principalities. Sergei G. Volkonsky (1788-1865), Decembrist, Prince, Major-General. Member of the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns. Member of the "Union of Welfare" and the Southern Society, one of the directors of the Kamenka council. Sentenced to 20 years hard labor. From 1826 to Nerchinsk mines in 1835-56 in exile in Irkutsk province. In 1861, overseas friends with AI Herzen and NP Ogarev. Volkonsky Sergei Mikhailovich (1860-1937), Prince, Russian writer, art critic, theatrical figure. Grandson SG Volkonskogo and MN Volkonskaya. Works on problems of general aesthetics; articles about the theater. Book "My memories" (vols. 1-2, 1923-24), "On the Decembrists. According to family recollections" (1921). From the end. 1921 in exile in Paris.
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