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Magna Carta (Eng. The Great Charter of Liberties, lat. Magna Carta Libertatum) - certificate signed by the English King John Landless June 15, 1215 at Runnymede Meadow (near Windsor). Composed in Latin, consists of 63 articles. Signed as a result of the revolt of the barons, who were dissatisfied with strengthening of royal power and gross violation of feudal customs. By rebellion joined the knights and the townspeople (including London), unhappy with the tax oppression, harassment and royal officials failed foreign policy of the king. Their support is provided barons victory over the king, which was fixed Magna volnostey.Zaschita feudal interests aristokratiiBolshinstvo articles of the Charter to reflect and protect the interests of the feudal aristocracy. They guaranteed the freedom of church prelates elections (Art. 1), the observance of the King of feudal customs in relation to his vassal barons (vv. 2-11), forbade the king to take with them the feudal help and shield money (skutagy) without the consent of "the general council of the kingdom "(v. 12), ie. e. the Board direct vassals of the king (v. 14), the judge prohibited the barons court other than equal to them on the Status of peers (v. 21), without their arrest and sentencing to deprive of property (Art. 39) . Magna Carta canceled firmly established after the reforms of King Henry II's right to interfere in the jurisdiction of the feudal curiae (v. 34). Article 61 of the Charter to ensure order compliance: the barons elected from among its 25 persons to oversee the implementation of liberties. If the king had violated the Charter and within 40 days at the request of at least four barons cure such breach, all the 25 barons could resort to violence against the king - t. E. To take his land and castles, sparing only his personality and family. Every citizen could support these barons against korolya.Prava other classes of chivalry and free peasantry also received considerable rights: the barons were forbidden to demand from them more services and obligations than it should according to the course (Art. 15, 16, 27, 60), all free people are guaranteed protection against arbitrariness of officials. Article 39 marked the beginning of individual freedom: no free man could not be arrested, imprisoned, deprived of property or protection of the laws, expelled or subjected to a four of a kind, except by the court of his peers and by the laws of the country. Article 20 limits the size of the administrative penalties: a free man retain ownership to the extent necessary to preserve the social status, in the collection of these penalties goods merchant and inventory Villain declared inviolable. The city received a confirmation of their privileges (Art. 13); it was found unity of weights and measures throughout the country (Art. 35); freedom of entry and exit from England in peacetime. Articles 18, 19, 20, 32, 40 and others. Approves new judicial and administrative orders, established after the reforms of Henry II and generally beneficial to the general public. Subsequently, in the 13-14 centuries. They entered the English feudal nation-wide pravo.Znachenie Charter Magna Carta has played an important role in English history. Despite the fact that John of England at the end of 1215 repealed it, it was reprinted by Henry III (1216, 1217, 1227) with certain modifications. It was confirmed Edward I and Edward II, the deletion of the constitutional articles, weakened the power of the king. It has contributed to the folding of the English estate monarchy (since 1297 all regular confirm Magna Carta were supplemented by new, more relevant political articles) .Hartiya played a major role in the development of justice of the British people. No wonder such major historians like Halle, M. Kovalevsky, DM Petrushevsky et al. Considered it a cornerstone of British liberties and the rule of law created by them in the form of a constitutional monarchy. In the early 17th century. Magna Carta was again "discovered" by the opposition to absolutism as the first in the history of England document, limiting the power of the crown and proclaiming rights and freedoms of citizens. Before and during the English Revolution, it has been widely used to substantiate claims of democratic freedoms and the right to fight against the royal tyranny. Since villanstva, t. E. Personally dependent peasants in the 17th century. England did not exist, rights which are the Magna Carta all free citizens to buy a new, democratic sense. Along with the theory of "Norman yoke" Magna Carta became the banner of the struggle against absolutism. A number of articles have been developed in the Habeas Corpus Act and Bill of Rights. References: Petrushevsky DM Magna Carta. M., 1918.Pamyatniki history of England 11-13 centuries. M., 1936.Gutnova EV emergence of the British Parliament. M., 1960.Select Charters and other illustrations of English Constitutional History ... / Ed. by W. Stubbs. 9th ed. Oxford, 1929.Poole AL From Domesday Book to Magna Carta 1087-1216. Oxford, 1951.Borrie M. Magna Carta. London, 1976.Davis G. R. C. Magna Carta. London, 1982.T. Pavlova GREAT enneads Heliopolis Ennead, in Egyptian mythology great nine gods Atum and eight gods generated by them, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Seth, Isis, Nephthys. The great geographical discoveries, the most complex of significant discoveries on land and sea, perfect for almost all written history of mankind. Traditionally great georaficheskie opening identifyed only with discoveries in t. N. the era of great discoveries georaficheskih (Ser. 15 - Ser. 17 cc.). To belong to the early period of opening: South. Asia and the Indian approx. (sailors and merchants Harappan civilization, 25-20 cc. BC. e.); the southern coast of Europe, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Cretan sailors and Achaean, 16-14 cc. BC. e.); East. Asia (yin merchants, captains, sailors, 14-8 cc. BC. E.); sailing around Africa and the establishment of its approximate size [Phoenician (Greek?) seafarers, between 609 and 595 BC. e. ]; North. Atlantic about. United Kingdom, North. and the Baltic Sea (Pytheas, not later than 320 BC. e.); East. Europe (merchants and colonists of Kievan Rus, 9-10 cc.); Greenland and the North-eastern. America (Eirik Raud, Leif Eyrikson, 981-1004). Were important discoveries Center. and South. America [H. Columbus, A. Vespucci, A. Velez de Mendoza (A. Velez de Mendoza) et al., 1492-1502]; sea routes from Europe to India (Vasco da Gama, 1497-99); 1st circumnavigation (F. Magellan, 1519-22), to prove the existence of the World approx. and the sphericity of the Earth; North. Asia and the strait separating it from the North. America (Ermak, IY Moskvitin, SI Dezhnev, 1582-1648); Australia [A. Tasman, Yanszon V. (V. Janszoon), F. Theis (F. Thjjszoon), 1606-42]. The great geographical discoveries were made later: the discovery of the North-West. America (Gvozdev, V. Bering, Chirikov, 1732-41) and Antarctica (FF Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, 1820). On the scientific value to the category of the great geographical discoveries must include the results of research to identify the bottom topography of the World approx. (Charles Thomson, D. Murray, 1872-76) and the discovery of a single planetary system of mid-ocean ridges [B. Hazen (B. Heezen), Mr. Menard (H. Menard), D. Bezrukov et al., 1955-62] .VELIKIE geographical discoveries, the largest opening of European travelers made 15 - the mid-17th century. The main reasons for the motives for sending Europeans numerous expeditions were several. This search for new trade routes, ie. To. The expansion rule of the Turks destroyed the trade relations with the East of Europe, cutting off a major trade route to the east - through Asia Minor and Syria. In addition, by this time was almost solved the problem of navigation on the high seas, to build a reliable court adapted for ocean voyages - all this has stimulated the search for new routes to India, the discovery and seizure of land lying south Evropy.Pervy during one of the first systematic expedition in the ocean began to Portuguese navigators. Velho in 1416, following the south along Africa, opened the Canary Islands, in 1419 Zarco and your Teixeira discovered the island of Madeira and Porto Santo, in 1431 V. Cabral - Azores ostrova.V 1487-88 B. Dias reached the southern tip of Africa , circled her, opened the Cape of Good Hope; passing the equatorial region, he destroyed existed since the time of Ptolemy the legend of the obstruction of the tropical belt. In 1497-98, Vasco da Gama (with the help of Arab pilot) on four ships skirted Africa and reached India. Based on the idea of the sphericity of the Earth, H. Columbus attempted to reach India in a different way (sailing west across the Atlantic). The Spanish government has allocated him three caravels (the largest displacement of 280 tons) and in 1492 (considered to be the year of discovery of America) expedition led by Columbus has achieved one of the Bahamas. Then he made three more swimming, opening the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica and several small islands of the Lesser Antilles group, the coast of South and Central America. Columbus died in 1506, being in full confidence that he had discovered a new route to India. In 1499-1504 four travel to the shores of America made Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci, calling them studied countries "New World". German cartographer and publisher M. Valdzemyuller in the preface to his book offered called "New World" in honor of Amerigo - America (unbeknownst Vespucci) and the name went down in history (in 1538 it was first shown on the map in relation to the Americas) . In 1500-1501 squadron under the command of the Portuguese P. Cabral, to India, because of the equatorial current highly deviated and reached Brazil, which Cabral declared a colony of Portugal; then he continued swimming, skirted Africa and proceeded through the Mozambique Channel in India. Like previous travelers, Cabral considered open to them to Brazil of Asia. The first European to reach the Pacific coast Spaniard V. Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and explore the islands of the Pacific Ocean, lying in the west of South America. Finally confirmed the existence of a vast ocean between America and Asia, F. Magellan, performed the first circumnavigation (1519-21), which became a practical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth. The expedition led by Magellan explored the southeastern part of South America, opened a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan) and made a voyage to the South Pacific. Magellan visited the Marianas and the Philippines (where he died in a skirmish with the natives). Of 239 people who went with him on a voyage back 21. This expedition confirmed the presence of a vast ocean between America and Asia (t. E. Of the oceans), gave the idea of the relative size of land and sea on the earth share.V end of the 15th century. Italian D. Cabot opened the north-east coast of North America, which in 10-11 centuries. visited by the Vikings. Later, his son S. Cabot made a long journey along the eastern coast of South America. In the second quarter of the 16th century. F. Pizarro and other Spanish conquistadors explored the Pacific coast of South America, opened the largest rivers - the Amazon, Orinoco, Parana, Paragvay.Vtoroy period (mid 16th - mid-17th century.) At that time the development of Siberia and the Russian travelers explorers. Pomors who lived on the coast of the White Sea, goes on a long voyage on small sailing vessels, opening the polar island (Spitsbergen and others). In 1579 or 1581 Yermak began his march into the heart of Siberia. In 1587 was founded Tobolsk, for a long time remained the capital of Siberia. In the north of Western Siberia in 1601 founded the city Mangazeya - the center of the fur trade. On the Yenisei and Lena were created Russian fortress to ensure the safety of settlers from the raids of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. In 1639 IY Moskvitin went to the Sea of Okhotsk, opened its coast. Poyarkov V. and E. Habarov in 1649-53 with his troops came to the Amur. Expedition S. Dezhneva first passed the Bering Strait that separates Asia and North America. Hike B. Atlasova Kamchatka completed the age of geographical discoveries in the Russian Sibiri.Popytki European travelers at this time to go around again Columbus discovered the land to the north and find a new route to Asia led to an intensive study of the North Atlantic and the Arctic. D. Davis spent three diving in search of the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in 1587 opened the Strait (named after him). G. Hudson during expeditions in the Arctic of North America discovered the strait, bay and river named after him. Hudson was a tragic fate, spring 1611 rebellious crew with his teenage son in the boat started up in the ocean, where they pogibli.U. Baffin in 1612-16 made an expedition to the coast of Spitsbergen, explored the Hudson Bay and the sea, later named after him, discovered a number of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, named his imenem.Gollandsky navigator B. Yanszon opened in 1606 Australia (west coast of Cape York Peninsula ). In 1642 A. Tasman discovered the island, later named after him, the first skirted the south Australia, proving that it is a single landmass. Floating in the region, L. Torres opened the southern coast of New Guinea and the Strait between it and Australia later received his imya.Znachenie great geographical discoveries in the history of mankind is enormous. They marked a new era in the geographical study of the Earth, gave impetus to the development of many areas of science, contributed to the intensification of world trade. Often in the literature to the great geographical discoveries also include identification on the ocean floor in the middle of the 20th century. grand system of mid-ocean ridges stretching St. 60,000 km (see. Rift world system) and deep trenches. Only after these remarkable discoveries have been erased "white spots" on the map of Zemli.Literatura: Peschel A. History of the era of discovery: Trans. with it. 2nd ed. M., 1884.Gehtman GN Outstanding geographers and travelers. Tbilisi, 1962.Magidovich IP Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. M., 1967.E. G. Mirlin Great Luke, a city in Russia, Pskov., At p. Lovat. Railway junction. 116 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Mechanical engineering and metal (machinery for forestry and peat industry, high-voltage equipment, etc.), Light, wood and food industries. Agricultural Institute. Theater. 2 museums. Known since 1166, with 1211 the fortress. Near the Great Bow Memorial Museum Mussorgsky and Kovalevskaya. Mughal dynasty rulers in t. N. Mughal Empire in 1526-1858 (India). Founded by Babur. The most prominent representatives - Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb. After the capture of Delhi in 1803 the British colonialists paid Mughal retirement, and in 1858 they abolished the Mughal dynasty of India and officially came under the direct control of the British Crown. Great Bridge, city (1940) in Ukraine, Lviv region., 16 km from the railway Art. Miner. 5.7 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Factory haberdashery and household products, etc.. It was founded in 1472. Great Lakes (Great Lakes), a system of lakes (Lake Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie and Ontario) in the United States and Canada. 245.2 thousand. Km2, the water volume of 22.7 thousand. Km3 - the largest accumulation of fresh water on Earth. Stoke on p. St. Lawrence (from the lake. Ontario) in the Atlantic ok. Intensive navigation. Fishing. Sluice channels have created a waterway for ships approx. 3000 km. Great Lakes shipping channels associated with p. Hudson and bass. Mississippi. The main ports: Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Toronto. Great Plains (Great Plains), foothill plateau bordering the North east of the Cordillera. America, in the United States and Canada. Length approx. 3600 km, width of 500-800 km. Height of 500 m in the east to 1700 m in the west. Composed of crystalline rocks, limestone, sandstone and loess. Strongly dissected; Karst in the south. Deposits of oil and gas, lignite, potash. Steppe and semi-desert landscapes. Pastoralism, agriculture. "Great Lives of the Saints", a collection of Paterik, Lives of the Saints, the writings of church writers, Rudder, certificates, certificates, etc. Is made in 30-40-ies. 16 in. in Moscow under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius. 12 volumes, 27 thousand. Handwritten pages with ornament. GREAT GOGOTUN, in Egyptian mythology, the deity in the form of a white goose, whose image dates back to the myth of the birth of the sun in the form of a bird. Grand Canal (Chin. - Dayunhe) ship canal in the PRC. The most important waterway connecting the two major ports - Tianjin and Shanghai. Length of 1782 km (with branches in Hangzhou, Beijing and Nantong - 2470 km). Construction on the canal was completed in the 13th century. (based on the channel being built in the 7th century.). The Grand Duke, 1) the head of the Grand Duchy in Russia 10-15 centuries. and the Russian State 15 - Ser. 16th centuries. 2) In the Russian Empire member of the royal family, a close relative of the emperor or empress (appeal - "Your Imperial Highness"). 3) Part of the full title of Emperor ("Grand Duke of Finland" and so on.). The Grand Master, see. Grandmaster. GREAT OCEAN see. Pacific Ocean. Lent, the period (7 weeks before Easter), during which the faithful Christians abstain from fasting foods, do not participate in amusements, do not marry. "Long March", a family of two- and three-stage rockets PRC. The three-stage liquid carrier rocket "Long March" has a launch weight of approx. 202 m, and the ability to bring into orbit a payload of up to 1.5 tonnes (1989). Long March, see. Northwest campaign. "Great Schism" in the history of the papacy period (1378-1417), when the papacy simultaneously occupied two or three popes fought among themselves. End of the "Great Schism" put the Council of Constance 1414-18, eliminating three popes and elected a new pope (Martin V). Great Ustyug, a city in Russia, Vologda., At p. Sukhona. Railway station. 36.2 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Plants: mechanical, foundry-mechanical, shipbuilding and ship repair; Bristle brush factory; woodworking, light and food industries. Center of arts and crafts (17 in.): Blackening of silver (see. Velikoustyuzhsk blackening of silver), weaving, carving and painting on birch bark (factory "Velikoustyuzhsk patterns"), chasing et al. History Museum. Known since 1207. Monuments 17 .: Church of the Assumption, Archangel Michael and the Trinity-Gleden Monastery, Cathedral of the Assumption. Great Silk Road in ancient times and the Middle Ages caravan route from China to Wed and Asia. UK, the largest island in the British Isles. Area of approx. 230 thousand. Km2. See. The United Kingdom (the state). UK, UK, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), a state in the North-West. Europe, the British Isles (of. The United Kingdom and the north-eastern part of. Ireland about. Man and the Channel Islands). 244.1 thousand. Km2. The population of 58.1 million. People (1993), in Vol. H. 80% - the British, 15% - the Scots, the Welsh (or Welsh) and Irish. The urban population of 91% (1985). The official language - English. Most believers - Protestants. The UK consists of four administrative-political units (historical provinces): England (39 counties, six metropolitan counties and B. London), Wales (8 counties), Scotland (9 districts and island territory) and North. Ireland (26 counties). The special mode is set to on. Man and the Channel Islands. Capital - London. Britain - a constitutional monarchy. The head of state - the king (or queen). Legislative - bicameral parliament (House of Commons and House of Lords). UK leads the Commonwealth. Britain by the Atlantic approx. and its seas. The north and west dominated by mountain terrain - Highlands (up to 1343 m), the Pennine and Cambrian Mountains; in the south and south-east - hilly plains. The climate is temperate, oceanic, wet. Average January temperatures from 3 to 7 ° C, in July 11-17 ° C. Precipitation up to 3000 mm in the west and 600-750 mm in the southeast in the year. The main rivers - the Thames, Severn Trent, Mersey, Clyde, in the north of the many lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Lomond, Loch Neagh et al.). In the mountains - peat bogs; moorlands. Forest (oak, beech, birch) occupy 9% in the UK. Numerous national parks and nature reserves for recreation (Peak District, Snowdonia and others.). In the 1 st millennium. BC. e. the territory of modern British Celts inhabited. In 1. n. e. most of the British Isles conquered by the Romans, and after their departure in 5-6 centuries. - Anglo-Saxons. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the process of feudalism, accompanied by the political union of the country and the centralization of state power. In the 2nd floor. 13 in. originated the English Parliament, was formed estate monarchy. The Hundred Years War with France 1337-1453 resulted in the loss of the territories conquered in France in the 12th century. The development of commodity-money relations and the class struggle of the peasantry (Wat Tyler's rebellion in 1381, and others.) Led (15 in.) To the almost complete elimination of personal dependence of the peasants. During the Wars of the Roses War (1455-85) was largely destroyed the old aristocracy. Rise of the new nobility (gentry) associated with the market, the development of the capitalist elements paved the way for the establishment of absolutism (con. 15 - beg. 16th c.). In the 16th century. turned the process of primitive accumulation of capital, which was the basis of dispossession of the peasantry (see. Enclosures.). During the period of the Reformation (1530-ies.) Created the Church of England. The English Revolution of the 17th century. ensure approval of capitalism. In the context. 17 in. were formed political parties - the Tories and Whigs (in the middle. 19 in., respectively transformed into conservative and liberal parties). Continued seizure of colonies (conquest of Ireland began in the 12th century.). The long struggle with France for the commercial and colonial hegemony ended in the 18th century. victory for the United Kingdom; were captured vast possessions in India and North. America. As a result of the War of Independence in the North. America, 1775-83 13 North American colonies broke away from the mother country and formed an independent state - the United States. In the context. 18 - early. 19th centuries. United Kingdom - the main organizer of coalitions against revolutionary and Napoleonic France then. In the context. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries. came the industrial revolution, in the 1830s. established the factory system of production, the industrial bourgeoisie became the ruling class (parliamentary reform 1832). In the 30-ies. legislatively abolished slavery in the British colonies in the Center. America. By Ser. 19 in. Great Britain has achieved the world's industrial monopoly. In 1830-40-ies. unfolded the first mass revolutionary movement of the proletariat - Chartism. In 1868 established British Trades Union Congress. In the 19th century. Britain was the largest colonial power in the world, having carried out the colonization of Australia, New msg. Zealand, winning the vast territories in Asia and Africa, completing the capture of India, Egypt, waging war against China (1840-42, 1856-1860), suppressing the national liberation movement in India (1857-59), the uprising in Ireland (1848, 1867 et al.). Strengthening of the liberation movement in the resettlement colonies (1837-38 uprising in Canada and others.) Forced Britain to set up a system of dominions (1st - Canada, 1867). Since the late 19th century. Britain lost its monopoly of the global industry. Great Britain has played an active role in the creation of the Entente and the preparation of the 1st World War. UK - one of the main participants of the 1st World War, as a result of which it has received a significant portion of the former German possessions in Africa and most of the territories taken away from Turkey. The policy of "appeasement" of the fascist aggressors (the Munich Agreement in 1938, and others.), Hosted by the Government of the Conservative Party (in the 20-30-ies. Almost constantly in power), Germany facilitated the outbreak of the 2nd World War, in which Britain joined September 3, 1939 . After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, under imminent threat of invasion of Nazi troops in the UK, the government of Winston Churchill went to a military alliance with the Soviet Union. Together with the Soviet Union and the United States United Kingdom was one of the main participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. During the collapse of the British colonial empire independence got to Ser. 1970s. almost all the English colonies. After the 2nd World War, the UK Government alternately formed Labour Party (1945-51, 1964-70, 1974-1979) and conservatives (1951-64, 1970-74, 1979). United Kingdom - economically developed industrial country. Share in GDP (1992,%): 24.1 Industry, agriculture 1.8. Mining (1992 million. Tons) of oil, 94.3, natural gas 55.2 billion. M3, coal 80.8. Production of electricity 304.5 billion. KWh (1985), mainly to the power station. Ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy (14.9 million. Tons of steel and 252 thousand. Tons of recycled aluminum in 1992). Leading industry - mechanical engineering, in Vol. H. Electrical and avionics, transport (aviaraketostroenie, automotive and shipbuilding), tractor- and machine tools. Developed oil refining, chemical (production of plastics and synthetic resins, chemical fibers, synthetic rubber, sulfuric acid, fertilizer), textile, food processing industry. Major footwear, clothing and other. Light industry. High-intensity agriculture, provides 3/4 of the country's food. The main branch of agriculture - meat and milk and dairy farming. Livestock (1992, mln.) Cattle 11.6, 75 pigs, sheep 28.9, poultry 131. crop are grain crops (14.2 million. Tons of wheat and 7.4 million. Tons of barley in 1992) ; the cultivation of sugar beet, potato. Fishing. Length (1992, thous. Km) of railways 37.8, Road 358. merchant fleet tonnage of 4.3 million. M. Deadweight. The main ports of London, Liverpool, Manchester, Milford Haven, Hull, Southampton, Immingham. Exports: machinery and equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, chemical products. Major trading partners: EU, US, Japan. United Kingdom - a major exporter of capital. Foreign tourism (approx. 12 million. Per year). Currency - pound sterling. Velikovsky Izrailevich Samarium (1931-90), the Russian literary critic, Doctor of Philology (1977). Major works are devoted to French literature of the 19th century., French poetry, philosophical and literary movements of the 20th century., Especially existentialism. Books: "Poets French Revolution. 1789-1848" (1963), "The Edge" unhappy consciousness "(1979)," Odyssey. Studies on the social and cultural history "(1989) and others." VELIKOGERMANTSY "political movement in Germany in the 19th., Seeks (as opposed to" malogermantsev ") for the unification of the German states under the hegemony of Austria. Chauvinism, an extreme form of nationalism representatives dominant nations, manifested in the suppression of others. peoples in multinational states, racism. Grand Duchy of Finland, the official name of Finland in the Russian Empire (1809-1917). Grand unified theoretical model of quantum field theory, which attempts to describe a unified framework of weak, electromagnetic and strong interactions. The unification of interactions occur at energies (in the cms of particles)? 1014 GeV (or at distances? 10-28 cm). A number of models predicts the instability of the proton with a lifetime of 1,032 years. Great Migration, the code name together ethnic movements in Europe in the 4-7 centuries. Germans, Slavs, Sarmatian and others. tribes in the territory of the Roman Empire. The immediate impetus for the Great Migrations was a mass movement of the Huns (from 70-ies. 4 in.). The Migration contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire. Great Embassy of Russia in 1697-98 Zap. Europe (Kenigsberg, Kurland, Holland, England, Vienna) to create anti-Turkish military alliance, inviting specialists in the Russian service, and purchase weapons. Head - Peter I (under the name of Peter Mikhailov). "Great ambassador": FY Lefort, Golovin, PB Voznitsyn. Sweet 250 people. Paved the way for the struggle for Pribaltiku.VELIKOE Embassy, Russian diplomatic mission in the West. Europe in 1697-98. Great Embassy officially headed FY Lefort, Golovin, and PB Voznitsyn, but really its activities led by Peter I, who was part of the Embassy under the name of Peter Mikhailov. Organized after successful completion of the Azov campaigns, Great Embassy was intended to formally negotiate to strengthen anti-Turkish coalition and the beginning of full-scale war against Turkey. Some historians, however, believe that the embassy originally was intended to diplomatic preparations for war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea, or was intended to reveal the real balance of power in Europe to integrate its policy making Russia. The path passes through the Great Embassy Riga, then the capital of Courland (while the Polish county) Mitau, and thence through Königsberg (Brandenburg Electorate). In Riga the Swedes welcome extended to the king, was not too warm, which is believed to have played a role in the decision to go to war with Sweden, but in Mitau and Konigsberg Duke of Courland and Elector of Brandenburg welcomed the Russian sovereign lavish dinner, fireworks and hunting. Negotiations with both been very successful, and with Brandenburg ended with the signing of the union agreement. Next Embassy went to Holland, where he spent four months unsuccessfully tried to negotiate an alliance against the Turks and receiving cash grants. At the same time it is engaged in the purchase of weapons and recruitment of armourers, metallurgists and experienced sailors. The king met with the Stadtholder of Holland English King William III and continued to negotiate with him in England, where he arrived in January 1698. Here, the king inspected the shipyard, factories, visited the University of Oxford, in the Greenwich Observatory, in the English Royal Society, at the Mint, met with I. Newton. London was also signed a trade agreement on which Lord Carmarthen was sold monopoly on trade in the Russian tobacco. April 25, 1698 Peter left England, he returned to Amsterdam, where his path lay in Vienna. On the way he stopped for a few days in Dresden, where he became acquainted with the Saxon Elector Augustus II. Stay Great Embassy in Vienna was relatively short-lived and was devoted mainly to diplomatic negotiations that led the king himself with Chancellor Count Kinsky and messenger Augustus II General Karlovic. However, these negotiations have not been successful because the European powers were preparing for war of the Spanish Succession and, as it became known, were separate negotiations with Turkey. On the other hand, Russia revealed the opportunity to put together a coalition of anti-Swedish. After Vienna Grand Embassy was going to go to Venice, but in July it became known riot musketeers and it was decided to return to Russia. According to some sources, Peter I with two or three accompanying yet visited Venice incognito for two or three days. August 25 (September 4) 1698 Great Embassy returned to Moscow. Its basic meaning - to develop a new foreign policy doctrine of Russia, Peter I familiarity with European politics and the art of diplomacy, shaping the worldview of the king and his reform plans. From now on Europe with its rational political system and advanced industrial steel Peter emulated, and impressions of Amsterdam and Venice are reflected in the planning Peterburga.Literatura: Pavlenko NI Peter the Great. M., 1989.Anisimov EV Time of Peter's reforms. L. 1989.A. B. Kamensky great opposition of Mars, the planet Mars opposition at a time when it is near perihelion. Great confrontation occur after 15-17 years. When the great confrontation distance from Mars to Earth is approx. 55 million. Km. Grand-Ducal, the name of the Rostov region Proletarsk. until 1920. Great Moravian Empire (Great Moravian, Bohemian principality), the state of the Western Slavs in 9-10 centuries. in southern Moravia. In 906, the Great Moravian Empire defeated nomads - Hungarians. GREAT, Christian martyr, who endures a particularly severe and prolonged suffering. Wielkopolska Kujawski LOWLAND (Nizina Wielkopolsko-Kujawska), in Poland, mainly in the basin. Warta. Height up to 227 m. Moraine hills, valleys flow of ancient glaciers, lakes. Pine and mixed forests. Planting potatoes and vegetables. Major cities - Poznan, Bydgoszcz, Torun. Great Russia, the official name of the 19th - early. 20th centuries. the European part of Russia, which became part of the Russian state until the middle. 17 in., With a predominantly Russian population (previously - Great Russia). 30 provinces. "Great Russians," the first illegal proclamation printed in Russia (June - October 1861, 3 Bedrooms, 1863, N4). Called for an educated society to put pressure on the government to empower land to the peasants, the convocation of people's representatives to draw up a constitution, granting independence to Poland. Otherwise, everyone predicted popular uprising in the summer of 1863. The author and publisher are not known. Great Russians (the Great), the name of Russian, common in the literature since the mid. 19 in. In modern scientific literature is preserved in terms of "severovelikorussky", "yuzhnovelikorussky" and "srednevelikorussky" to refer to the three major dialects of the Russian language. Veliko Tarnovo (Tarnovo until 1965), the city in Bulgaria, p. Yantra. 70 thousand. Inhabitants (1985). Mechanical engineering (in Vol. H. Electrical), textile, chemical, wood processing, food processing industry. University. Archaeological Museum. How large settlement known from 11-12 centuries. The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the center of the Tarnovo uprisings in 1598, 1686. The remains of a Byzantine fortress of 5-6 centuries., Fortresses, churches and palaces (12-14 cc.). Churches and houses in the traditional style of the Bulgarian Revival. Veliko Tarnovo - a city-reserve. Velikoustyuzhsk blackening of silver, Russian folk art craft, was formed in the 18th century. Veliky Ustyug. Cigarette cases, coasters and others. Decorate pictures, carefully executed by black. In 1933 founded the gang (1960 Factory) "Severnaya Chern" (artistic director EP Shilnikovsky, until 1962). Belisarius (Belisarios) (c. 504-565), the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. commander Defeat the Iranians, the Vandals in the North. Africa, conquered from the Ostrogoths South. and Wed. Italy. Commands (lat. Velites), light infantry as part of the Roman legion in 4-3 centuries. BC. e. Weapons - bow, sling, dart. Protective arms had not. VELIKHOV Eugene P. (b. 1935), the Russian physicist, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; Academy of Sciences of the USSR since 1974), Vice President of Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; Vice-President of the USSR from 1978), Hero of Socialist Labor (1985). Major works on plasma physics, magnetohydrodynamics, the problem of controlled thermonuclear fusion. Lenin Prize (1984), the USSR State Prize (1977). VALUE, mathematics -1) generalization of specific concepts of length, area, weight, and so on. N. By selecting one of the values of this kind of unit, we can express the ratio of the number of any other quantity of the same kind to the unit. 2) In a more general sense of a scalar or a scalar, is an entity fully characterized by specifying a single number. Generalization of scalar quantities are vector quantities (see. The vector), tensor quantities (see. The tensor calculus). Wieliczka (Wieliczka), a town in southern Poland. 18 thousand. Inhabitants (1990). Balneological resort. Salt Mine (11 in.). In the old salt mine now a museum and a sanatorium. Tourism center. VELICHKO Konstantin Ivanovich (1856-1927), the Russian military engineer. Author of works on fortifications and castles projects. In the 1st World War Field Inspector at the Headquarters of the engineering, engineer-general (1916). After the October Revolution, the Red Army, a professor of Military Engineering Academy. VELICHKO Maxim K. (b. 1922), Hero of Socialist Labor (1966), the Holders Order of Glory (1944, 1945, 1945), Sergeant. In World War II reconnaissance squad leader of an artillery regiment. After the war, the factory foreman plater. VELICHKO Samuel V. (1670 - c. 1728), Ukrainian historian, ideologue Cossack. Author Annals of events in the South-West. Russia in the 17th century. Velke (Wellcome) (Welkom), a city in South Africa. 132 thousand. Inhabitants (1980). Center of gold mining and uranium. Chemical industry. Vellanskiy Danilo Mikhailovich (1774-1847), a Russian medical scientist and philosopher. "Prolyuziya to medicine ..." (1805) - 1st essay in Russia, imbued with the ideas of natural philosophy FV Schelling. The author of "Experimental, observational and speculative physics" (1831). Weller (Weller) T. H., see. Weller TH Welling Boris Konstantinovich (1892-1923), Russian pilot, a member of the first Soviet missions. During the 1st World War II was in the army, was appointed as an instructor of the Moscow School of Aviation and in 1917 selected her supervisor vote. In the Red Army fought on the Eastern and Turkestan fronts. In 1921-23 made several first long-haul flights (in Vol. H. Poltoratsk-Kagan Kirk-Termez and vice versa). In 1922 he was appointed head of the department of educational institutions of the Air Fleet of the RSFSR. He died during a training flight. Wellington (Wellington) (Wellington), the capital of the new. Zealand, in the North of the island. 152 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Sea Port (turnover of approx. 15 million. Tons per year). International Airport. Food processing, machinery, metals, wood, paper, light industry. University. Royal Society for the new. Zealand. New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts, National Gallery of Art. Carter Observatory, National Museum. Founded in 1840. It was named after A. Wellington. Capital from 1865. Wellington (Wellington) (Wellington) Arthur Wellesley (Wellesley) (1769-1852), Duke (1814), British Field Marshal (1813). In the wars against Napoleonic France commander of Allied forces in the Iberian Peninsula (1808-13) and the Anglo-Dutch army at Waterloo (1815). In 1827-52 Chief of the British Army. In 1828-30 the Prime Minister's office the Tories in 1834-35, Minister of Foreign Affairs.
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