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ADYVAR (Adivar) Halide Edip (1883-1964), a Turkish writer. Novels ("Fire shirt", 1922; "Kill the whore", 1926) about the fate of the Turkish women patriot. Autobiographical novel "The House with wisteria" (1963). Circassian language, refers to the Caucasian (Ibero-Caucasian) Languages (Abkhaz-Adygei group). Writing on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Adygeys (self - in Adygea), the people in the Russian Federation, mainly in Adyge (9.5 thousand. People). The number in the Russian Federation 123 thous. People (1992). They also live in Turkey (5 thous. People) and the Arab countries. Adyghe language. Believers - Sunni Muslims. ADYGEA (Adygea Republic), in the Russian Federation. Founded 27.07.1992 as Cherkess (Adygei) authors. reg., to 08.24.1922 on 13.08.1928 - Adygea (Circassian) the authors. reg., up to 07.03.1991 Adygea authors. region. as part of Krasnodar kr., July 3, 1991 - The Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation. 7.6 thousand. Km2. The population of 437 thousand. People (1991), urban 53%; Russian (294 thousand. man, 1989), Adygeys (95 thous. people) and others. 2 towns, 5 urban settlements (1991). Center - Maikop. The northern part - plain south - the mountains and foothills of the Greater Caucasus. The average January temperature of approx. -2 ° C, July approx. 22 ° C. Precipitation approx. 700 mm. Bass River. Kuban. Food processing, timber and wood, engineering, gas production, and others. Industry. Grain crops, sunflower, sugar beet, tobacco. Vegetable and melon; viticulture, horticulture. Bred mainly cattle. Beekeeping. Navigation on the river. Kuban. Adygea, a common name in the past many kindred tribes North. the Caucasus; in European and Oriental literature from the Middle Ages called the Circassians. By Adygs belong modern Adygeys, Kabardians and Circassians. Adil Sabir Rakhimovich (b. 1932), the Uzbek architect, People's Architect of the USSR (1981). The chief architect of Tashkent (1970-86), one of the authors of its architectural center (1966-74; State Prize of the USSR, 1975). Adyrkhaeva Svetlana Dzantemirovna (b. 1938), the Russian ballet dancer, People's Artist of the USSR (1984). On the scene since 1955. In 1960-88 at the Bolshoi Theatre. Dance is different spirituality, impeccable technique. Party: Aegina ("Spartacus" AI Khachaturian, 1968), Kitri ("Don Quixote" LF Minkus, 1972), and others. The artistic director of the International Ballet Theatre of Russia "Scythian" (Moscow) since 1990. Adycha, river in the Russian Federation, Yakutia, right tributary of the Yana. 715 km, the basin area of 89.8 thousand. Km2. The average water flow of 500 m3 / s. Characterized by large ice. Adultery (fr. Adultere), infidelity, betrayal. Adian Sergei Ivanovich (b. 1931), Russian mathematician, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991). Proceedings on mathematical logic, theory of algorithms and their applications to algebra. AETY (Asty) Ammoreysky (Phrygian) (d. C. 845), the Christian martyr-warrior, one of the 42 Amorites martyrs killed for refusing to convert to Islam. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19) of March. AETY Sebaste (d. C. 320), one of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. Azhaev Vasiliy (1915-68), the Russian writer. Theme Based on the novel "Far from Moscow" (1948, USSR State Prize, 1949) - the work of prisoners during World War II. The novel "The Wagon" (1955-64, published 1988) about the tragic fate of the people of the 1930s. - Metro builders. AZHBE (Aschbe) Anton (1862-1905), Slovenian painter. Since 1891, the head of a private art school in Munich. Evolved from the academic to plein-air painting. Ajwain, herbaceous plant of the genus ayovan. Ajiniyaz Kosybay uly (1824-78), Karakalpak poet. Historical-heroic poem "Bozatau"; philosophical and didactic and love poems. AGIO (ital. Aggio) (premium), the excess of the market price of gold, foreign exchange rates, and other bills. Securities specified rating. Agiotage (fr. Agiotage), severe agitation, anxiety, conflict of interests around some cases the question. Excessive demand - demand for any goods, determined not real need and excitement, panic moods and so. N. AZHUR (from the French. Ajour - to this day), accounting, under which all counting records do on the day of business operations. In openwork (subst.) - In order. Openwork (from the French. Ajour - through), 1) through, lace, net. 2) skilfully and subtly done. AZA Isaurian (d. 284 or 305), the Christian martyr, the victim, along with 150 soldiers facing them to Christ, in Isauria in the persecution of Diocletian. Memory in the Orthodox and the Catholic Church on November 19. AZAD (Maulana Abul Kalam Azad) (1888-1958), one of the leaders of the Indian independence movement, an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity. Works on philosophy and history. Azad Dovletmamed (1700-60), the Turkmen poet and scholar, Sufi. Father of the poet Makhtumkuli. Didactic poem "Preaching Azadi". Azadovsky Konstantin Markovich (b. 1941), the Russian literary critic. The main area of interest - Russian and foreign literature 19th and 20th centuries., Russian-German literary connections. Books: "Nikolai Klyuev: The Way of the poet" (1990). Azadovsky Mark Konstantinovich (1888-1954), Russian folklore, literary critic. Researcher literature, folklore, life in Siberia. Proceedings of the writer and the Decembrists, Russian folklore. Azazel, a demon in the views of Judaism. According to the apocryphal Book of Enoch, Azazel - fallen angel, raised a rebellion against God, seducer of the human race. Azalea (azalea), ornamental shrub species genus Rhododendron. Azan (Ar.) (EZAN), Islam's call to prayer from the minaret muezzin heralds. Azarov MONK (16 in.), The Slavic-Romanian chronicler, the author chronicles the events bows 1552-74. Azarov Babylonian (Chaldean name Abednego) (d. 529 or 522 BC. E.), One of the three Jewish youths of noble birth, taken during the Babylonian captivity to the court of King Nebuchadnezzar; for refusing to worship the idol thrown together with Ananias and Misail into a fiery furnace, but miraculously escaped unscathed (the book of Daniel 1-3). Memory in the Orthodox Church 17 (30) of December. Azarov Ludmila Pavlovna (b. 1922), the Russian ceramic artist, People's Artist of the USSR (1991). Based on the traditions of Gzhel pottery, concise form small plastic ("vodonoski", "tea", "riding"), decorative vessels with rich shades of blue painting on a white background. Azarov Dmitry Ivanovich (1906-88), a Russian electrical engineer, doctor of technical sciences (1965). Works on the stability of electric power systems. The automated calculation models for the AC power grid of the USSR. Under his leadership, created and put into operation the first in the USSR thyristor compensator for voltage regulation. Lenin Prize (1962). USSR State Prize (1947, 1951). Albert Azarian Vagarshakovich (b. 1929), the Armenian athlete (gymnastics), Honored Master of Sports (1954). Olympic champion (1956, 1960), the world (1954, 1958), Europe (1955), repeated champion of the USSR (1952-62) in the individual exercises and team competitions. Azas, nature reserve in Tuva. Founded in 1985. The area of 300.4 thousand. Ha. Zap mountain landscapes. Sayan. Dark coniferous taiga, kedrovolistvennichnye woodlands. Reindeer, red deer, beaver; black stork, bar-headed goose. AZAT (Gugstsiatazad) Gadiabsky (Persian) (d. C. 345), the Christian martyr, the eunuch who suffered in the persecution of king Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox church on November 20 (December 3). AZAT Seleucia (Persian) (d. 345), the Christian martyr damaged in persecution in Persia Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox Church 17 (30) of April. Azat (pers. Azad - free; Arm. - Free, noble), in Iran under the Sassanids lowest layer of the privileged class riders (arteshtaram) - medium and small landowners, who served during the war in equestrian militia. In medieval Armenian name of medium and small feudal lords, as well as all the feudal lords, in contrast to the non-free persons (anazatov). AZAU, two glaciers of the Greater Caucasus, Elbrus: Large Azau, valley glacier (2.1 km); Small Azau, hanging glacier (1 km). Mountaineering. ABC (for the first Slavic letters "az" and "beech"), 1) alphabet. 2) Primer. 3) In the music - a system of symbols (musical alphabet). Azbukin Dmitri Ivanovich (1883-1953), a Russian pathologist and physician-pihiatr, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (1945). Proceedings on mental retardation, improving and school health. Azbukovnik, handwritten Russian dictionaries or encyclopedias 13-18 centuries. with words and terms in alphabetical order. Azgur Zaire Isaakovich (b. 1908), the Russian sculptor, People's Artist of the USSR (1973), member of the Academy of Arts (1958), Hero of Socialist Labor (1978). Portraits of the heroes of the Great Patriotic War ("Silnitsky", 1943), the leaders of the revolution and culture. USSR State Prize (1946, 1948). Azela Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs who suffered in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. AZELLA Rome (d. After 386), the Christian ascetic, Reverend. Memory in the Orthodox church on Saturday cheese, in the Catholic December 6th. Agincourt (Azincour), a village to the south of Calais (France); 10/25/1415 Agincourt during the Hundred Years War, British forces defeated Henry V by increasing the number of French troops. AZEOTROPIC mix (from a - a negative prefix, zeo - boil and trope - rotate, change), the liquid mixture, which at a given pressure is not divided into components by distillation. Eg., 96% aqueous ethanol (rectified spirit) by distillation under atmospheric pressure can not be divided into absolute ethanol (100%) and water. AZERBAIJAN (Republic of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Respublikasy) state in the eastern part of the Caucasus; on the east by the Caspian Sea. 86.6 thousand. km2. The population of 7398 thousand. People (1993), urban 54%; Azerbaijanis (5805 thousand. man; 1989 census), Armenians, Russian, and others. Official language - Azerbaijani. Believers mostly Sunni Muslims. Capital - Baku. Head of State President. The highest legislative body - the parliament (Majlis). As a part of Azerbaijan - Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. From 1923 to Azerbaijan was part of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region (Nagorny Karabakh); in November 1991 the Armed Forces of the Republic decided to liquidate the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. 61 district, 65 cities, 122 urban-type settlements (1989). Approx. 1/2 of Azerbaijani territory is occupied by mountains. In the north - hr. Of the Greater Caucasus, in the south-west - hr. M. Caucasus, in the middle part - Kura-Araks Lowland., In the south-east - Talysh Mountains, Lankaran Lowland. The climate is transitional from temperate to subtropical. The average July temperature of 5 ° C in the highlands to 25-27 ° C in the lowlands, January respectively -10 ° and 3 ° C. Precipitation of 200 mm per year in the foothills of the Greater Caucasus to 1200-1700 mm on the Lankaran Lowland. The main rivers - Kur and Araz. Irrigation canals: Verhnekarabahsky, Verhneshirvansky et al. Mingechevir Reservoir. Soils are mainly gray desert, in the mountains brown and brown mountain-forest and mountain-meadow; on the Lankaran Lowland. - Zheltozemy. The vegetation of the dry steppes, semi-desert, alpine meadows; Mountain deciduous forests. The largest reserves: Kyzylagach, Zakatala, Shirvan, and others. On the 9th century. BC. e. ancient states: Mana, Media, Atropatena, Caucasian Albania. In 3-10 centuries. under the authority of Iran, the Arab Caliphate; popular movements: Antisasanidskie rebellion., mazdakitov, Babak rebellion. In 9-16 centuries. State of Shirvan, and others. In 11-14 centuries. invasion of the Seljuk Turks, Tatars, Timur. In the 16-18 centuries. in the Safavid state; the object of the struggle between Iran and Turkey; People's Liberation Movement Koroghlu and others. From the middle. 18 in. St. 15 states, dependent on Iran. In 1813 and 1828 North. Azerbaijan joined the Russian (Baku, Elizavetpol lips.). By the end. 19 in. Baku - the largest industrial center. Soviet power was established in November 1917, there was Baku commune. Since the summer of 1918 Anglo-Turkish intervention, Musavat power. 04/28/1920 Azerbaijan SSR proclaimed; to 12.03.1922 was part of the Transcaucasian Federation (ZSFSR) from 05/12/1936 - directly into the USSR as Soviet republics. In February 1991, adopted the name - the Republic of Azerbaijan. In August 1991, the Azerbaijani Armed Forces declared the independence of the republic. In May 1990, entered the presidency. In 1988-89 there was a conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh, which led to armed clashes, which escalated into large-scale military action. In the structure of the national income (1991,%): 54.2 Industry, agriculture 36.7. Electricity production 23.3 billion. KWh h (1991), mainly to the power station. Leading industries: oil and gas, oil refining, chemical and petrochemical industry (fertilizers, synthetic rubber, tires, etc.), Engineering (in Vol. H. Chemical and petroleum, electrical and electronic industry, instrument and machine tools, repair), and black non-ferrous metals, iron ore and alunite. Easy (in Vol. H. Ginning, cotton, silk, woolen, carpet), flavoring (in Vol. H. Canning, tea, tobacco, wine) industry. Agricultural land area of 4.2 million. Ha (1990). Sowing area 1463 thousand. Hectares (1990), in Vol. H. 40% cereals (mostly wheat), 36% feed, 20% of commercial crops. The main industrial crops - cotton, tobacco, tea. Gross grain harvest of 1.4 million. Tons (1990), cotton 543 thousand. Tons of grapes in 1196 thous. Tons. Early vegetables, subtropical fruit. The irrigated area in 1401 th. Ha (1990). The main branches of livestock - sheep, dairy and beef cattle, poultry. Sericulture. Operating length (1991, thous. Km) of railways 2.09; public roads 36.7, in Vol. h. of paved, 32. The main port - Baku railway ferries connected to the ports of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. (Krasnovodsk, Aktau, Bekdash). Shipping Kura. Pipeline transport. Resorts: Istisu, Naftalan, Apsheron group and others. Azerbaijani Soviet Encyclopedia (ASE), the first universal encyclopedia in the Azerbaijani language. It was released in 1976-87 in 10 vols. The main edition of the ASE. Editor in Chief - E. Guliyev. Azerbaijan Drama Theater. Azizbekov, founded in Baku in 1920, 1957 Academic. Azerbaijan Industrial University. Azizbekov, Baku, founded in 1920 (before 1991 Oil and Chemistry Institute). Trains specialists in geology, chemical engineering, industrial, energy, mechanics, industrial economics and others. In 1991 St. 14 thousand. Students. Azerbaijan Medical University. Narimanov, Baku, dates back to 1930. It prepares doctors in all major specialties. In 1991, approx. 8 thousand. Students. Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute, Baku, founded in 1921. In the 50-60-ies. at the Institute created a number of pedagogical universities. Preparing subject teachers for secondary schools, teachers of physical education, preschool teachers, and others. In 1991, approx. 8 thousand. Students. Azerbaijan Opera and Ballet Theatre. MFAkhundov opened in Baku in 1920, 1959 Academic. Performances in Azerbaijani and Russian languages. Azerbaijan University of them. ME Rasulzade, Baku, founded in 1919 to train specialists in mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, history, philology, law and oriental studies, library science, journalism. In 1991, approx. 13 thousand. Students. Azerbaijani language belongs to the Oguz group of Turkic languages. The official language of Azerbaijan. Ancient writing and the writing of Azerbaijanis in Iran and some others. States in the Middle East based on the Arabic script. In Azerbaijan, a script based on the Russian script, in 1991 adopted a law on the restoration of Azerbaijani alphabet with the Latin alphabet (used in 1929-39). "Azerbaijanfilm" them. J. Jabbarly studio films and documentaries in Baku. Founded in 1923. Among the films: "Twenty-six commissioners" (1933), "Arshin Mal Alan" (1945), a documentary "Conquerors of the Sea" (1959), "Interrogation" (1979), "Before the door closed" (1981) "Another Life" "little devils under the windshield" (both 1987), "Private visit to the German clinic" (1988). It produces feature films and documentaries. Azeris (self - azerbaydzhanlylar, azeriler), the people, the general population of Azerbaijan (5.8 million. Man, 1992). They also live in Iran (10,430 thousand. People), Russian Federation (336 thousand. People), Georgia (307 thousand. People), Kazakhstan (90 thous. People), RA et al. Countries. The total number of communication. 17.2 million. People (1992). Azerbaijani language. Believers are mostly Shiite Muslims. Azerinform, the news agency of the Council of Ministers of Azerbaijan. Founded in 1920 as a branch of growth since 1921 Azerbaijani news agency; its present name since 1972. The exchange of text and photo information with foreign authorities media. Azefs Yevno Fishelevich (1869-1918), one of the founders and leaders of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, its military organization, provocateur, since 1893 a secret collaborator of the Police Department. The head of a number of terrorist acts. In 1901-08 gave police many SRs. In 1908 exposed VL Burtsev and disappeared. Asian depression, an area of low atmospheric pressure over Asia, the center of the Iranian plateau. Appears often in the summer. Asiatic locust, a subspecies of the migratory locust, the family Acrididae, a pest of many agricultural and wild plants in Eurasia, North. Africa. Gray-green-yellow or green, the length of 29-59 mm. The Asian Games, the largest multi-sport competition of Asian countries. Held since 1951 every 4 years (2 years after the Olympic Games). Asian Games Federation (founded in 1949) were united in 1991, the National Olympic Committees of approx. 30 countries. Asian anticyclone (Siberian anticyclone), an area of high atmospheric pressure centered over South. Siberia and Mongolia; manifested mainly in winter. With Asian anticyclone associated prevalence of clear cold snowy winters. ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (ADB; Asian Development Bank), regional interstate bank for long-term crediting of development projects in Asia and the Pacific Rim. Founded in 1965. Headquartered in Manila (Philippines). By the end. 1980s. ADB included in the 47 states. The largest shareholders of the ADB - Japan, USA, China. Major borrowers - Bangladesh, Pakistan, India. Asian Museum, a research institution; collection of manuscripts in various Asian languages, and a library of books on oriental studies. Founded in 1818 in St. Petersburg. In 1930, on the basis of the Asian Museum and several others. Oriental institutions was established Institute of Oriental Studies, Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1991 RAS). Asian-American race, see. Mongoloid race. Azido, contain one or more groups - N3. Inorganic azides - azide HN3; most of them, eg., lead azide, explodes with a light stroke. Aziz Nesin (Aziz Nesin) (pres. The name Mahmoud Nusret) (b. 1915), the Turkish writer, satirist and humorist, dramatist. Numerous collections of short stories, "The elephant named Hamdi" (1955), "Well done" (1959), "Long live the motherland" (1975), a satirical novel "The King of Football" (1957), "Zyubyuk" (1961). Azilian (in archeology) early Mesolithic in the territory of France, Germany and the Iberian Peninsula; the name of the cave Mas d'Azil, (Mas-d'Azil) in the department of Ariège (France). Microliths, horn harpoons, colored pebbles. Agriculture: gathering, hunting. Azim Azimzade Aslan oglu (1880-1943), the Azerbaijani schedule, People's Artist of Azerbaijan (1927). Author ostrosatiricheskoy drawings, which ushered in the Azerbaijani satirical graphics (series "Types of Old Baku", 1937). AZIMOV (Asimov) Isaac (1920-92), American science fiction writer and popularizer of science. A series of novels, t. H. "The foundation of the Empire" (1952), "Fringe foundation" (1982), "Foundation and Earth" (1986), about the destruction of the Galactic Empire and the birth of a new social order. The central theme of the novel "The Gods Themselves" (1972) - rationalism without morality leads to evil. Non-fiction books ("The Universe", 1966, et al.). Autobiography "While fresh memories" (1979). AZIMOV Pigam Azimovich (b. 1915), the Turkmen linguist, academician (1951) and president (1966-75), Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan. Proceedings on Turkmen linguistics, word formation issues. AZ (Ar. Al-sumut, pl. H. By Al-Samten - path direction) of the object, direction, angle (azimuth) between the plane of the meridian observation point and the vertical plane passing through this point and the observed object. Is measured from the north (in geodesy) or from the south (in astronomy) clockwise from 0 to 360 °. In determining t. N magnetic azimuth plane instead of taking geographic meridian plane of the magnetic meridian. Azimuthal projection, map projections, which parallels the normal grid - concentric circles, and meridians - their radii diverging from a common center parallel angles, equal to the difference in longitude. Normal azimuthal projections are used for maps of the polar regions, transverse and oblique azimuthal projection - Card terrestrial hemispheres, continents, starry sky, moon and others. Planets. Azine dyes, quinone imine dyes, phenazine derivatives (formula I). Used for dyeing paper, leather and textile color from deep red to black, and also as desensitizers photography. ASIA, the biggest part of the world (approx. 43.4 million. Km2) forms together with Europe mainland Eurasia. The boundary between Asia and Europe is usually held in the Urals (crest or its eastern foot, pp. Emba, Kuma, Manych, mid-watershed of the Greater Caucasus, Caspian seas, the Sea of Azov, Black Sea and the Marmara, the strait. Bosporus and Dardanelles). Africa Asia joined the Isthmus of Suez, from North. America is separated by the Bering Strait. Washed by the North. Arctic, Pacific and Indian oceans and marginal seas and inland seas of the Atlantic approx. The island of St. 2 million. Km2. The average height of 950 m, the highest - 8848 m (Mt. Qomolangma, the highest point of the Earth). Mountains and plateaus occupy approx. 3/4 terr. The main mountain ranges: the Himalayas, Karakoram, Pamir, Tien Shan, Hindu Kush, Kunlun, B. Caucasus, Altai, Sayan, Verkhoyansk ridges and Cherskogo. Large Highlands: Tibetan, Iranian, Armenian, Asia Minor, becoming Koryak. Plateau: Central Siberian, the Arabian Peninsula, Deccan. The largest plains: West Siberian, Turanian, Great Chinese, Indo-Gangetic, Mesopotamian. In Kamchatka, eastern islands. Asia and the Malay architect. many active volcanoes, strong seismicity. The climate of the Arctic in the north and extreme continental temperate in East. Siberia to the equatorial on the islands of Indonesia. In eastern. and South. Asian monsoon climate, on the plains of the Centre., Wed. and Zap. Asia - desert and semi-desert. In the highest mountains Avg. and the Centre. Asia, in the Himalayas, on the islands of the Arctic developed glaciation (118.4 thousand. Km2). Significant areas, mainly in the North. and east. Siberia (approx. 11 million. Km2), occupied by permafrost. The main rivers are the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisey, Lena (bass. North. Arctic approx., Most of the year covered by ice); Cupid, the Yellow River, Yangtze River (the longest in Asia, 5800 km), Xi, Mekong (bass. Pacific approx.); Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Shatt al-Arab (bass. Indian approx.). Large area of internal drainage (bass. Caspian and Aral seas, many areas of the Center. Asia and Wed. East). Large lakes: Lake Baikal, Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Van, Urmia, Hanka, Qinghai, Poyang, Dongting, Taihu, the Tonle Sap. On the islands and along the coast of the Arctic North. Arctic approx. extend arctic deserts and tundra, framed with a narrow strip of tundra south, south - taiga (predominantly dark coniferous in the west and in the east light coniferous), changing into the mixed and deciduous forests, steppe and steppe. Semi-desert and desert is particularly well expressed in the Arabian Peninsula (Nefud, Rub 'al Khali), in the interior of the Iranian plateau (Dasht-e Lut, Dasht-e Kavir et al.) In Wed. and the Centre. Asia (Karakum, Kyzylkum, Gobi, Taklamakan) in the South. Asia (Tar). In the subtropics Zap. Asia - Mediterranean vegetation; in East. Asia - monsoon mixed and deciduous forests. In the eastern tropical latitudes. and South. Asia - monsoon deciduous forests and savannas, on the windward slopes of the mountains - evergreen forests. In equatorial latitudes (mainly in Indonesia) stacked swamp forests - gilei. In Asia - a large part of the Russian Federation, as well as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Bhutan, Vietnam, Georgia, part of Egypt, Israel, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Yemen, most of Kazakhstan, Cambodia, Qatar, Cyprus, Kyrgyzstan, China, North Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Pakistan, Palestinian Territories (West Bank district. Jordan Gaza Strip), Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan, most of Turkey, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan. The population of Asia St. 3.2 billion. People (1990). * * * AZIYaIstoriya research etapOgranichennye Basic information on the geography of Asia were known to the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia. Movies of Alexander the Great (4th c. BC. E.), Egypt's trade with India, the presence of a trade route ("Silk Road") from China to West Asia contributed to the gradual accumulation of information about Asia. However, a deeper knowledge of this part of the land were obtained pozdnee.Vtoroy stage (7-17 cc.) Study of Asian scholars and travelers VostokaV 7. Buddhist monk Xuan Zang, traveled to Central and Central Asia, India, provides information on the geography, ethnography and history of the countries seen in one of his major works, "Notes on the countries of the West," Finished in 648. Arab traveler and geographer Ibn Khordadbeh (9 -10 cc.) described the province of Asia Minor. Biruni made work about India, Masudi given geographical and historical description of the Muslim countries, China, India, Palestine, Ceylon. In 9-11 centuries. different regions of Central and West Asia studied Mukadassi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Fadlan Ibn Rust. Arab traveler Idrisi (12 in.), Who has lived most of his life in Sicily, in the consolidated geographical work described Asia Minor, which he visited. In the 14th century. Ibn Battuta, who visited many countries in Asia, wrote a great work, which gave a very vivid and lively description of these countries, including information about useful iskopaemyh.Issledovanie Asia Europeans in the 12-13th centuries. Europeans who committed the Crusades, collected information about the countries of Central and South Asia. In 1253-55 Flemish traveler monk Rubruk, took a trip with diplomatic objectives to Mongolia. The report of this most significant (up to M. Polo) European tour to Asia to contain valuable information on the geography of Central Asia (in particular, it was pointed out that the Caspian Sea is not a sea and lake). Significant contribution to the development of ideas about Asia contributed traveler M. Polo (1271-95), who has lived in China for about 17 years. "The Book" (1298), written with his words in the Genoese prison, where he was during the war with Genoa, Venice, first introduced Europeans with Persia, Armenia, China, India and others. It was a handbook of such great explorers like Columbus Vasco da Gama, Magellan and others. The Merchant of Venice and traveler M. Conti, in 1424 traveled to India, visited Ceylon, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, on behalf of the Pope in 1444 dictated a report on this journey. In 1468-74 Russian merchant Nikitin took a trip to India. His travel records containing multilateral surveillance, were published under the title "A Journey Beyond the Three Seas" In the middle of the 15th century. Europeans began to look for sea routes to Asia. Portuguese sailors reached India in 1497-99 (Vasco da Gama), visited Malacca, Macau, the Philippines, Japan. In the second half of the 16-17 centuries. South Asia continued to penetrate the Dutch, English, Spanish. In 1618-19 the Siberian Cossack I. Petlin visited Mongolia and China, paid a route on a map, and seen laid out in the book, translated into English, French and other languages. One of the first Europeans in 1690-92 visited Japan German naturalist and physician E. Kaempfer, collected extensive data on the nature, history and way of life of the people. His book, published in 1728 in London, has long served as the primary source of information about Asia Yaponii.Issledovanie Russian explorers During this period, the greatest contribution to the study of the northern regions of Asia, where the Europeans did not penetrate, made by Russian explorers. By the end of the 16th century., After a hike Ermak became broadly known in Western Siberia. In 1639 IY Moskvitin with a detachment of Cossacks reached the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. In the 1632-38 squad led by EP Khabarova studied Lena River basin. In 1649-53 he crossed The backbone, traveled in the Amur region, it was the first card. In 1643-46 the rivers Lena, Aldan, See and Cupid was VD Poyarkova squad, which also presented figures traveled routes and gathered valuable information on the Far East. In 1648 expedition SI Dezhnev rounded the Chukchi Peninsula and opened the strait that separates Asia from America, and the Cape, which is at the north-eastern point of Asia. Siberian Cossack VV Atlas 1697-99 traveled to Kamchatka, reached the northern Kuril Islands and was a description ("Skaskiv") found zemel.V 17. Russian explorers, despite the extremely difficult climatic conditions, overcoming enormous space opened up almost the whole of Siberia. Complete this phase of the first maps of Siberia made Tobolsk governor P. Godunov and his countryman, geography and cartography S. Remizovym.Trety stage (18 - mid-19th century.) During this period, research continues north and north-east of the Asian continent and the Russian travelers navigators. By decree of Peter I loaded with Kamchatka expedition, which was led by V. Bering, was assistant A. Chirikov. The first expedition (1725-30) went overland through Siberia to Okhotsk, and then, after the construction of ships, Behring went to sea, skirted the coast of Kamchatka and Chukotka, discovered the island of St. Lawrence and went strait that now bears his name. Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733-41), thanks to the scope of work also known as the Great North, occupies a prominent place in the history of the study of the Arctic and northern Asia. Were mapped Asian shore of the Arctic Ocean, opened the Commander, Aleutian and other islands, explored the coast of Alaska. Individual units headed by brothers Laptev VV Pronchishchev, SI Chelyuskin (whose names are immortalized on a map). Great contribution to the study of Central Asia have missionaries who gave in the early 18th century. Description of China, Mongolia and Tibet. At the end of the 18th century. Russian traveler and naturalist Pallas investigated Eastern Siberia and Altai. In 1800-05 Ya Sannikov discovered and described the pole and Faddeevsky Novosibirsk Islands archipelago, suggested the existence to the north of Sannikov Land. In 1811 VM Golovnin took a trip to the Kuril Islands, made their inventory and map. During the expedition, he was captured by the Japanese. His memories of their stay in 1811-13 in captivity, containing information about the country and the customs of the Japanese, became the first in Russian describing Japan. In 1821-23 PF Anjou explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean (between the mouths of the rivers Olenek and Indigirka), perform a series of astronomical and geomagnetic observations. FP Wrangel in 1820-24 led an expedition to study the northern coast of eastern Siberia. According to information received from the Chukchi, it is in the Chukchi Sea determined the position of the island, named after his name. In 1829, at the invitation of the Russian government Alexander von Humboldt took a trip to the Urals, Altai, in the south-western part of Siberia to the shores of the Caspian Sea, in the Kirghiz steppes, the results of which have been highlighted in the writings of "Central Asia" (t.1-3 1843 Russian translation, vol.1., 1915) and "Fragments of Geology and Climatology Asia" (vols. 1-2, 1831). Litke during the world tour in 1826-29 explored the eastern coast of Asia and Kamchatku.Chetverty stage (mid-19th - early 20th centuries). Since the mid-19th century. sharply increases the role of systematic studies conducted by academic institutions, the Geographical Society and topographic services of Britain, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Japan and China. The number of monographic descriptions of Asia. Russian Geographical Society, founded in 1845, expands the work in Siberia and the Far East. In 1856-57 Semenov-Tyan-Shan made the trip to the Tian Shan (gave his first orographic scheme), explored the western spurs of the Trans-Ili Alatau, the first European climbed the slopes of the massif of Khan Tengri. In memory of his achievements in the study of the Tien Shan in 1906 to his name was added "Tian-Shan." AP Mabuza in 1868-71 made several trips to Turkestan, the first Russian travelers visited the Alai Valley, opened Trans Alai, explored the lower reaches of the Syr Darya River. In 1872-76 Voeikov visited South and West Asia, China, Japan, India, Central Asia, gathering valuable information on the climate of different regions of Asia. In 1877-80, ID Cherskii gave a detailed geographic and geological description of the coast of Lake Baikal. In 1870-85 organized four expeditions to Central Asia under the leadership of NM Przewalski, opened many previously unknown remote areas - Kunlun, Nanshan, Tibet and others. His studies continued Russian travelers - MV Singers GEGrumm -Grzhimaylo, G. Ts Tsybikov. VAObruchev, worked in Central Asia, made three expeditions to the Trans-Caspian region (1886-88), opened the series of ridges in the mountains, Nanshan Ridge Daurskiy et al., Investigated the Highlands Beyshan.V the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Russian scientists (IV muskets Berg) continue systematic study of Asia. Construction of Trans-Siberian Railway also encourage regular surveys adjacent territoriy.Vpervye Northeast Passage from Europe to the Far East took place in 1878-79 N. Nordenskiold, later (1911-15) this way, only this time from east to west, repeated expedition B . A. Vilkitsky. During this period, start-depth geographical research scientists Asian countries (Japan, China, India, Indonesia) .Nachinaya mid-20th century. intensified research in the Russian part of Asia related to national economic development of the vast territory created regional research centers and institutes, leading work on mapping (in Vol. h. large-scale) and integrated study of Siberia and the Far East. Establish regular navigation along the Northern Sea Route. Conducted a systematic study of international ekspeditsiyami.Literatura: Skalon VN Russian explorers XVII century in Siberia. M., 1951.agidovich IP Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. M., 1967.Gvozdetsky NA Soviet geographical exploration and discovery. M., 1967 .. G. Mirlin AZNAVOUR (Aznavour) Charles (pres. Name and fam. Varenag Aznavuryan or Aznauryan) (b. 1924), a French singer, songwriter and actor. On the stage, with the 1940s. Songwriter (with 60s. Orchestrates their P. Mauriat), film music. Filmed in the movies: "The Devil and the Ten Commandments" and others. Repeatedly toured the USSR. AZNAKAEVO, city (1987) in the Russian Federation, Tatarstan, 34 km from the railway Art. Yutaza. 34.3 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Oil and gas. Food enterprises. Aznaur Georgian nobles (5 in.). With the accession of Georgia to Russia got the rights of Russian nobility. Azov, a city in the Russian Federation, Rostov region., A port on the river. Don. Railway station. 80.9 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Machinery, light industry, food industry. Historical museum. In the 1-3 centuries. n. e. settlement on the territory of Azov Meotians, with 13 in. Golden Horde, the Azak. In the 14th century. Venetian and Genoese colony (Tana). In 1395 destroyed by Tamerlane. Since 1475 the Turkish fortress. In 1637, taken by the Cossacks (see. Azov sitting), in 1696 - the troops of Peter I; in Russia since 1739 (permanently from 1774). "Azov" sailing battleship Russian Navy. For the first time in the history of the domestic fleet for distinguished service in the Battle of Navarino in 1827 was awarded the George Ensign. AZOVO-Sivashskaya hunting reserves, Ukraine, Kherson region., On about. Biruchiy. Created in 1957 on the basis of the Azov-Sivash Reserve (1927). The area of 30,121 hectares of land - 8921 ha. Sagebrush-steppe zhitnyakovaya. Waterfowl and wading birds, spotted deer. Azov Flotilla existed in April - June 1918, March 1920 - June 1921, led the fighting against the German occupiers, the fleet of General Wrangel. Re-established in the Great Patriotic War; July 1941 - April 1944 acted on the Azov and Black Seas. At its base was formed Danube Flotilla. Azov campaigns of 1695-96 Russian army and navy led by Peter I during the Russian-Turkish war of 1686-1700, which resulted in the capture of Azov (1696). Azov Fleet, created by Peter I in the context. 1695 - May 1696 on the rivers near Voronezh for action on the Azov m. (Sailing ships, galleys). Played a crucial role in the capture of Azov (1696). After the Prut campaign (1711) destroyed. Azov Cossack Host, 1828-1864, created from the Cossacks, who returned from Transdanubian Sich. Settled (up to 6 thousand. People) in the north-west coast of the Azov m. In the 60-ies. the bulk of resettled on the North. Caucasus. Sea of Azov (al., Rus. - Surozhsky Sea), in the south the East European Plain. Kerch Strait. connected with the Black m. 39 m. km2. Depth of 15 m. Large room .: Taganrog, Siwash. Flow into large rivers. Don and Kuban. Frozen for 2-3 months. Fishing (anchovy, sprat, bream, perch). The principal ports of Mariupol, Taganrog, Yeisk, Berdyansk. Resorts. As a result of anthropogenic impacts deteriorated environmental conditions; being sought scientifically sound ways to restore natural systems Azov m. Azov sitting, defense Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks fortress of Azov, taken from the Turks in 1637. In 1641 the Cossacks withstand a siege in the summer of 1642, destroying fortifications left Azov. Reflected in the military story, created on Don - "The Tale of poetry" (1642). Azo cm. Azocompounds. AZOLSKY Anatoly (b. 1930), the Russian writer. Published since 1987, although many of the works written before. In the stories ("stubs", 1993; "Berlin - Moscow - Berlin", 1994; "The War at Sea", "cell", both 1996) and novels ("Stepan Sergeyevich," 1987; "Hang fire", 1988) addresses to the social and moral problems and conflicts of Soviet history. Collection of stories "The Legend of lieutenant" (1990). Azomethine dyes, organic dyes, azomethine-containing groups in the molecule (- CH = N -). Used mainly in color photography. Compounds azomethine dyes with metals (pigments, azomethine) was used for dyeing polyolefin fibers and plastics, in printing. Azonal vegetation occurs as inclusion in the zonal vegetation, eg., The meadows in the floodplains and semi-deserts. Azole (from a - a negative prefix and Greek. Zone - zone, the zone), the spread of a natural phenomenon is due to the zonal features of this site. Usually due to the geological structure, tectonic regime, morphostructures relief and others. Endogenous factors. Azonal investigation - differences in climate, water regime, soil and organic world. Most pronounced in the mountains. Azores (Acores), in the Atlantic c., To the west of the Iberian Peninsula. The territory of Portugal. Approx. 2.3 thousand. Km2. The population of 237 thousand. People (1991). 9 volcanic islands and several reefs. Height up to 2351 m (about. Pico). Evergreen forests and subtropical crops. The administrative center and port - Ponta Delgada. Azores anticyclone, the constant region of high atmospheric pressure over the subtropical and tropical regions of the Atlantic approx. in the Northern Hemisphere. Azo compounds, organic compounds containing an azo group - N = N -, associated with two hydrocarbon radicals. Prepared by reduction of nitro compounds, etc. to coupling. Aromatic azo compound is used as azo dyes for dyeing textile material, leather, paper, furs, plastics. Azocoupling getting azo diazocompounds interaction with aromatic amines, phenols, etc., Eg .: C6H5N2CI + C6H5OH - C6H5N - NC6H4OH + HCI. Used for the synthesis of azo dyes. NITROGEN (lat. Nitrogenium), N, V chemical element of the periodic table, atomic number 7 atomic weight 14,0067. Name from the Greek a - a negative prefix and zoe - life (does not support combustion and respiration). Free nitrogen is composed of two-atom molecules (N2); gas is colorless and odorless; density 1.25 g / mp - 210 ° C, boiling point - 195,8 ° C. Very chemically inert, but reacts with the transition metal complex compounds. The main component of the air (78.09% by volume), which are obtained by industrial separation of nitrogen (a synthesis is 3/4 ammonia). It is used as an inert medium for many technological processes; liquid nitrogen - nitrogen Refrigeration - one of the main nutrients, part of proteins and nucleic acids. NITROGEN OXIDES: N2O monoxide and nitrous NO (colorless gases) sesquioxide N2O3 (blue liquid) dioxide NO2 (brown gas mixture under normal conditions and NO2 dimer N2O4), oxide N2O5 (colorless crystals). N2O and NO - nesoleobrazuyuschie oxides, N2O3 with water gives nitrous acid, N2O5 - nitric, NO2 - a mixture thereof. All physiologically active nitrogen oxides. N2O - anesthetic drug ("laughing gas"), NO and NO2 - intermediates in the production of nitric acid, NO2 - oxidant in the liquid propellant, explosive mixtures, nitrating agent.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM NIETZSCHE / ФРИДРИХ ВИЛЬГЕЛЬМ НИЦШЕ
НИЦШЕ / NIETZSCHE / ЕССЕ HOMO / ВОЛЯ К ВЛАСТИ / К ГЕНЕАЛОГИИ МОРАЛИ / СУМЕРКИ ИДОЛОВ /
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