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Vekilova Leila Mahat kyzy (b. 1927), the Azerbaijani ballet dancer, People's Artist of the USSR (1967). Since 1943 the Azerbaijani Theatre of Opera and Ballet. Akhundov, 1972 tutor. In 1976-82 Head Dance Ensemble of Azerbaijan. VEKKERLIN Georg Rudolf (1584-1653), German writer. From 1620 he lived in England. Introduced in German literature genre odes. The author of the collection "Ode and songs" (1619). Secular equation, algebraic equation of degree n, which satisfy the frequency of small oscillations committed a system of material points with n degrees of freedom about its equilibrium position. Secular equation of celestial mechanics in problems of t. N. secular inequalities in the motion of the planets. SECULAR GAMES (lat. Ludi saeculares), in Dr. Rome festival ritual purification of the city, occurred once in a hundred years. Dedicated to the underground gods and Dita Proserpine (observed at night) from the time of Augustus - Jupiter, Juno, Apollo and Diana. On the last day of celebrations choir of children sang the Century hymn whose words (for August) wrote Horace. Notes (it. Wechsel, letters. - Exchange), type of securities, monetary obligation. Unconditional and undisputed debt document is strictly prescribed by the law. Distinguish bill simple and transferable (draft). Transfer of bills from one person to another is made of endorsements - endorsement. In the Russian Federation Regulations on Bills and Notes adopted in 1991. VEKSLER Vladimir I. (1907-66), the Russian physicist, academician of the USSR (1958). The founder of the scientific school of physics and technology acceleration of charged particles. The principle of phase stability, developed the foundations of collective acceleration method. Under the direction of Wexler created the first Soviet-Synchrotron (1947) and synchrotron (1957). Lenin Prize (1959), the USSR State Prize (1951). VECTOR (from Lat. Vector - bearing), a segment of a certain length and direction. Typically, the vector denoted by the letter a or (the first letter - the beginning of the second - the end of the segment); the absolute magnitude (length) of the vector is written | a | a. Two vectors are equal only if they have the same length and the same direction (ie. E. They are parallel and similarly oriented). With the change in the sign of the orientation vector. Vectors represent t. N. vector quantities: strength, speed, acceleration, and so on. d. Actions on the vector study in vector calculus. VECTOR in molecular genetics, self-replicating DNA molecule that can incorporate foreign DNA (genes) and transfer it into the cells, hereditary properties you wish to change. Typically, the vector is created based on DNA plasmids and viruses (in Vol. H. Bacteriophages). Vector widely used in genetic engineering for reproduction (cloning) or introduced genes encoded by these genes producing protein products. State vector is the same as the wave function. VEKTORMETR (from vector ... and meter), a device for measuring current, voltage and phase of the AC. Vector diagrams, graphic image values of physical quantities that vary harmonically, and the relations between them as vectors. It is used in the calculations in electrical engineering, acoustics, optics, and so on. D. Vector calculus, a branch of mathematics that studies operations on vectors. Vector calculus includes vector algebra and vector analysis. Terms of vector algebra reflect the properties of operations on vector quantities. Eg., The sum of the vectors a and b is a vector extending from the start to the end of a vector of the vector b with the proviso that the beginning of the vector b is applied to the end of vector a; it is usually associated with the rule of addition of forces or velocities (cm. parallelogram of forces). In vector calculus are two types of multiplication of vectors (see. The scalar product, vector product). If i, j, k - three mutually perpendicular unit vectors in space, then any vector a can be uniquely represented in the form a = a1i + a2j + a3k. The numbers a1, a2, a3 are called components (coordinates) of the vector a. The basis of vector analysis are differentiation and integration of vector functions. Vector field, the area in which each point P is given vector a (P). On the concept of vector fields lead many physical phenomena and processes (eg., The particle velocity vector of a moving fluid at each time form a vector field). Vector product on a vector b, the vector p = [a, b], or a • b, equal in length to the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors a and b, perpendicular to the plane of the parallelogram; direction of the vector product of p depends on the choice of the coordinate system i, j, k: from the end of the vector p shortest rotation of the vector to a vector b can be seen in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) in which the end of the rotation vector k can be seen from i to j. Vector product depends on the order of the factors. Vector space, a mathematical concept that generalizes the notion of the set of all vectors of 3-dimensional space to an arbitrary number of dimensions. Vector-valued function (vector function) function, the values of which are vectors. Vekua century (1907-77), the Georgian mathematician and engineer, academician (1946) and president (1972-77), Georgian Academy of Sciences, Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1958), Hero of Socialist Labor (1969). Works on the differential and integral equations, function theory, the theory of shells. Lenin Prize (1963), the USSR State Prize (1950, 1984, posthumously). Vecchio, currency Dr. Russia (9-13 cc.) Vaxjo (Vaxjo), a city in southern Sweden, the administrative center of the county of Kronoberg. Ok. 70 thousand. Inhabitants (1989). Mechanical engineering and metal working. Founded in 1342. Vekshinsky Sergei A. (1896-1974), the Russian scientist, academician of the USSR (1953), Hero of Socialist Labor (1956). Author of a number of electronic devices. Lenin Prize (1962), the USSR State Prize (1946). Velasquez (Rodriguez de Silva Velazquez) (Rodriguez de Silva Velasquez) Diego (1599-1660), Spanish painter. Court painter of Philip IV (1623). Paintings on religious, mythological ("Bacchus", c. 1628-29), historical ("Surrender of Breda", 1634) subjects, scenes from folk life ("Breakfast", c. 1617-18), Distinguishing portraits ("Innocent X ", 1650, a group portrait of" Las Meninas ", 1656), true and poetic scenes of Labor (" spinner ", 1657). Velazquez painting differs courage realistic observations, the ability to penetrate into the nature of the model, a keen sense of harmony, subtlety and richness kolorita.VELASKES, Rodriguez de Silva Velazquez (Rodrigez de Silva Velasquez) Diego (4 or 5 June 1599, Seville - August 6, 1660, Madrid) , Spanish painter, the largest representative of the Spanish Baroque. BiografiyaProiskhodil from a wealthy aristocratic family. He studied in Seville with F. Herrera the Elder and F. Pacheco (1611-17), whose daughter Juan Miranda, married in 1618. In 1617, received a master. He worked in Seville and Madrid, where he moved in 1623, appointed court painter to the exclusive right to paint portraits of the king. Held various positions at the court of Philip IV, until Marshal court in 1652; the scope of his official duties, takes a lot of effort and time, included the organization of celebrations, receptions, decoration palace rooms, as well as the completion of the royal art collection. Surpassing contemporary Spanish artists not only creative range, but also the courage and originality of artistic decisions, Velazquez painted on the genre, mythological, historical, religious subjects, portraits, landscapes. A man of high moral nobility, he was called by his contemporaries "the artist of Truth." Seville period. BodegonySamostoyatelnost manifested itself in the early Seville period paintings created in the genre Bodegón (from the Spanish. Bodegon - restaurant, pub), depicting a meager breakfast, kitchen scene with a few half-figures and isolated in the foreground still life. In these works, with sharp chiaroscuro contrasts, heavy and dense painting, marked by the influence of the school of Caravaggio, dominated by full of natural dignity catchy folk types ("Breakfast", c. 1617-18, the Hermitage, a similar picture 1618-19, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest; "The old cook", c. 1620, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh; "Breakfast of two young men," "water-carrier", c. 1621 - both Wellington Museum, London). By genre Bodegón are few and early religious paintings by Velazquez: "Adoration of the Magi" (1619, Prado); "Christ in the House of Martha and Mary" (c. 1620, National Gallery, London). Madrid period of life in Madrid, which opened the possibility Velasquez scrutiny valuable royal collections of paintings (including works by Titian), proximity to the Spanish cultural elite, a meeting with visiting Madrid Rubens in 1628, the first trip to Italy (1629-1631) helped to expand his artistic outlook and improving skills. In unusual for the Spanish tradition of the paintings in the ancient stories ("Bacchus" or "drunkards", 1628-1629, "The Forge of Vulcan", 1630 - both in the Prado), with their keen sense of worldly authenticity and a touch of irony, mythological images connected with scenes close to reality. "Surrender of Breda" painting "Surrender of Breda" (1634, Prado, which became the ensemble Hall Kingdoms Madrid Retiro Palace - one of the most important works of European art historical genre, which is characterized by a deep humanity, each of the warring parties. Transfer Spaniards keys from the Dutch fortress of Breda - semantic unit composition, which states defeated for the right to respect, and for the winner - by generosity. The huge canvas, filled with silver mist early June morning and give the impression of spatial depth, decided in a restrained elegant color scheme with subtly conveys Valero. Portraits 1630 -40 as a new free painting by Velazquez, his interest in the image of landscape protection (two small landscape Medici villas and Prado were written by him outdoors in natural light), the desire to fill life grand scheme of image feature of his work after his return from Italy - the so-called horse (1634-35) and hunting (1634-36) portraits of the king, his family, the prime minister Olivares for palaces of Retiro and the Torre de la Parada (all in the Prado). The portraits of Velázquez usually absent accessories, gesture, movement. Gray-brown background air seems, has the depth, the free position brushstrokes form a thin layer of, which shines through the coarse canvas. Strict dark gamma animated sophistication combination of gray and red and pink, and gray-greenish olive, black and gold. Striking effect of gray tones, the darker, soft, velvety, then reaching the clean, fresh pearl shade. Portraying the king, dignitaries, courtiers, friends, students, Velázquez portrays man as he is, in the confluence of the most contradictory traits, whether it's a cruel temporary worker Olivares (c. 1633, Hermitage), surly nobleman Juan Mateos (c. 1632, Art gallery, Dresden) was an Italian Cardinal Camilo Astalli (1649-50, Museum of the Spanish Society of America, New York), the total internal energy of an unknown gentleman (perhaps Alonso Cano, 1630-ies., Wellington Museum, London), immersed in its the work of sculptor J. Martinez Montanes (1635-38, Prado) or fanned noble elegance "Lady with Fan" (c. 1648, Wallace gallery, London). The portraits of the royal jesters and dwarfs Velasquez snepredvzyatoy vigilance glance reveals their character, state of mind, a world of experiences, sometimes rising to the mournful tragedy ("Barbarossa", 1636-38; "El Bobo Corea del" c. 1637-39; "El Primo ", 1644;" Sebastiano del Morro ", c. 1643-44;" The Boy from Valeskasa ", c. 1644," Juan of Austria ", the beginning of 1650s. - all the Prado). In doubles, the pictures "Menippus" and "Aesop" (1639-40, Prado), appear images of people descended poor vagrants and outcasts of society, but gained their freedom from the inner personality of restricting conventions. Intellectual richness satirist Menippus expressed in his ironic, unkind attitude to the world, in the form of fabulist Aesop - sad indifference and the wisdom of man, come to know the true value of life. During the same period, apparently, is his masterpiece "Venus with a Mirror" (up to 1651, the National Gallery, London), rare in the history of Spanish painting the image of a naked female body, subject, prohibits inkvizitsiey.V Italii.Vtoroy Velasquez trip to Italy (1649-51) accompanied by traditional success. Portrait of his student mulatto Juan Parejo (1644-50; New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art) was enthusiastically received in the Roman artistic circles. Velasquez was elected a member of the Roman Academy of St. Luke and society of virtuosi of the Pantheon. Roman portrait of Pope Innocent X (1650 Doria Pamphili Gallery, Rome), an unusually bold frankness on the image (taking it, Innocent X exclaimed: "Too true!") Became the most famous creation Velasquez outside Spain; in Rome it endlessly copied. Portraits 1650s. 1650-ies. - The time the highest creative achievements Velazquez. Inspired artistry, courage picturesque finds marked recent women's and children's portraits of ladies of the royal house (Queen Mariana of Austria, c. 1649, the Prado, the Infanta Maria Teresa, 1651, meeting of Lehman, New York, 1653 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna; Infanta Margarita, 1653 , 1659, ibid, 1656, the Louvre, 1660, Prado, infante Philip Prospero, 1659, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). Deep psychological characteristics observed portrait of an aging Philip IV (1655-56, Prado, author repetition of the National Gallery in London). "Las Meninas" and "spinner" Main create Velasquez later period - a large-scale composition "Las Meninas" ("Fraulein", 1656, in inventories of the 17th and 18th centuries. picture designated as "Family", "The Family of Philip IV"), "Spinners" (1657) - both in the Prado. In the "Las Meninas" painting filled with movement of spatial plans, air and light, private episode of court life (girl Infanta Margarita is surrounded by ladies and dwarfs, Velázquez himself at the time of execution of the portrait of the royal couple, reflected in a mirror in the back of the room) is presented as one of the moments of the flow of life in the richness of its relationships and changing manifestations. The painting is based on a complex interweaving of official and residential, multi-faceted game on the shades of meaning and figurative comparisons. In an equally multifaceted plan for the film "Spinners" scene in the royal carpet workshop with Spinning figures in the foreground as it captures a world of acting in unity and the reality of dreams, everyday life and myth of Greek craftswoman Arahne.Velaskes writing without an outline, right on canvas, organically connected directly to the impressions of nature and would like a free improvisation with strict reasonableness kompozitsii.Literatura: Kapterev TP Velasquez. M., 1961 Znamerovskaya TP Velasquez. M., 1978.Yakimovich AK The Artist and the palace. Diego Velázquez. M., 1989.Justi K. Velasquez und sein Jahrhundert. Bonn, 1888.Lopez-Rey J. Velasquez. A catalogue raisonne of his work. London, 1963.Comon Aznar J. Velasquez. Madrid, 1964. V. 1-2.Brown J. Velasquez. Painter and courtier. New Haven; London, 1986.T. P. Kapterev Velasquez (Velazquez) (Velazquez de Cuellar) Diego (1464-1524), a Spanish conquistador. Won about. Cuba in 1511-24 governor of the island; undertook a series of expeditions to the conquest of Yucatan, Florida and Mexico. Velasco Alvarado (Velasco Alvarado) Juan (1909-77), president of Peru in 1968-1975, Major-General. Velasco Alvarado government passed a law on agrarian reform, nationalized the property of the American oil and mining companies and established public companies. IBARRA Velasco (Velasco Ibarra) Jose Maria (1893-1979), President of Ecuador in 1934-35, 1944-47, 1952-56, 1960-61 and 1968-72, the leader of the National Federation of velaskistov, established in 1952 by his supporters. WELD (from niderl. Veld - field), arid plateau in the South. Africa, mainly in South Africa. Go down the steps from the Drakensberg Mountains in the east to the Kalahari Basin in the west and the river valley. Limpopo in the north. High Veld (altitude 1200-2000 m) - between the rivers Orange and Vaal, Middle Veld (1000-1500 m) - between the mouth of the river. Waal and the upper river. Olifants, Shrub Veld (approx. 900 m) - north of Pretoria, Low Veld (300-800 m) - between shrub Velde and p. Limpopo. Covered with xerophytic grasses and shrubs, savannah areas. Large deposits of diamonds (in the Kimberley region). Van de Velde, the family of Dutch painters: 1) Esayas (c. 1590-1630), one of the founders of the Dutch national landscape, characterized by the simplicity of the composition, the emotional sense of the life of nature. 2) Villa (1633-1707). Sonorous color, tranquil seascapes. 3) Adrian (1636-72). Portraits, religious, mythological, allegorical compositions, idyllic landscapes. Velde (van de Velde) (van de Velde), Henry (1863-1957), a Belgian architect and master of decorative art. One of the pioneers of the style of "modern" (Folkwang Museum in Hagen, Germany, 1901-02), and later rationalism (theater Werkbund in Cologne, 1914). Velebit (Velebit), range in Croatia, on the Dinaric Alps, along the Adriatic m. Length approx. 150 km, height up to 1758 m. Composed mainly of limestone; developed karst. The western slopes steeply east covered with deciduous, coniferous forests. Velembovskaya Irina (pres. Fam. Shuhgalter) (b. 1922), the Russian writer. In the collections of short stories and novels "Forest Story" (1967), "Third Semester" (1973), "The view from the balcony" (1981) and others. - Female destiny, moral and psychological conflict. The most famous was the novel "Sweet Woman" (1973, filmed in 1977). Wielopolski (Wielopolski) Alexander (1803-77), Marquis, in 1861-63 in the administration of the Kingdom of Poland. Conscription of specifically named persons, announced in January 1863 Wielopolski to eliminate the revolutionary guerrilla organization, to speed up the Polish Uprising of 1863-64. Friedrich Wohler (1800-82), a German chemist, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1853). First synthesized from inorganic substances organic compound (1824) and established his identity with urea (1828). Wohler studies have questioned the correctness of vitalism. Veles (Volos), "cattle god" in the Slavic-Russian mythology, patron of animals and the god of wealth. Veles de Guevara (Velez de Guevara) Louis (1578-1645), Spanish writer. Plays on biblical subjects, from the national and international history. Picaresque novel "lame devil" (1641). Velizh, a city in Russia, Smolensk region., 93 km from the railway Art. Rudnev, a marina on the River. Zap. Dvina. 9.2 thousand. Residents (1992). Furniture factory, flax, food enterprises. Founded in 1536. Velizh CASE major process (1823-35) on a false accusation of a group of Jews Velizh of murder with a ritual purpose. Despite the pressure of reactionary circles defendants were acquitted. GIANTS Dmitry Petrovich (1908-86), the Russian scientist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1968). Major works on the study of performance of the car, the problems of road transport in an integrated transport system. GIANTS Mikhail Andreyevich (1879-1964), a Russian hydrologist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1939). Laid the theoretical foundations of channel-flow dynamics. VELIKANOVA Helena Martselievna (b. 1922), the Russian singer, People's Artist of Russia (1992). Since 1950 soloist Mosconcert. The basis of the repertoire of songs by Soviet composers. GREAT river in the Pskov region. 430 km, the basin area of 25.2 thousand. Km2. Originates in Bezhanitsy Upland., Flows into Lake Peipsi., Forming a delta. The main tributaries: Issa, Blue, Morning (left); Soroti, Cherekha, Pskov (right). Navigable for 40 km from the mouth. Rafting. On the Great - the city Opochka, Ostrov, Pskov. Great (Large, Onemen) river in the northeast of the Russian Federation. 451 km catchment area of 31 thousand. Km2. The average water flow of 290 m3 / s. Formed by the confluence of the rivers and Kuyimveem Kolvygeyvaam originating in the Koryak Highlands. On the Anadyr Lowland. divides into numerous branches and channels. Flows into the room. Onemen the Bering Sea. "The Great War" 1409-11 between the Teutonic Order, on the one hand, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - on the other. Order was defeated in the Battle of Grunwald 1410. In the world of Toruń Teutonic Knights refused claims to Samogitia and Dobzhinskuyu land, Poland and Lithuania paid compensation. Great Dyke, an array intrusive ultramafic rocks in Zimbabwe. The length of 560 km, width up to 12 km. Includes the largest reserves (1 billion. T) deposits of chrome ores; passing extracted Pt, Ni. In operation since 1919. The annual production of 580 thousand. Tons of ore (1985). The main production centers - Shurugvi, Lomagundi. "Great Depression", the most prolonged economic crisis in the history of the industrialized countries. Began after the "Black Friday" - the collapse of the stock price on the New York Stock Exchange on October 25, 1929. The value of shares fell by 90%, massive devastation of small investors in the United States immediately affected the trade and industry. The crisis quickly spread to other countries, primarily the United Kingdom and Germany, the mutual financial obligations associated with the United States. Overcoming the crisis associated with the "New Deal" Roosevelt. China Plain, east of China. Stretches more than 1,000 km along the banks of the Yellow and East China Seas. Area of approx. 325 thousand. Km2. Flat surface, the height of 100 m. In the east - the island Shandong mountains. Composed of a thick layer of alluvial deposits of the Yellow River, Huaihe, and others. The climate is subtropical monsoon humid summers and dry cold winters. Frequent floods (accompanied by repeated movements of significant river beds of the Yellow River and Huaihe). Most of the plowed (wheat, cotton, rice, peanuts). One of the most populated areas in the world. Major cities - Beijing, Tianjin, and others. Great Wall of China, the fortress wall in the North. China; grand architectural monument al. China. From Jiayuguan (prov. Gansu) to Liaodong room. Length at one assumptions, approx. 4 th. Km, on the other - St. 6 th. Km height 6.6 m, in some areas up to 10 m. Constructed mainly 3. BC. e. Fully restored section of the Great Wall of China near Beijing. Gran Colombia, the Federal Republic in 1819-30; created during the Spanish American wars of independence 1810-1826. Newly included. Granada (modern Colombia and Panama), Venezuela and Quito (today's Ecuador). The Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, the liberation war of the Soviet people against Nazi Germany and its allies (Hungary, Italy, Romania, Finland); most important part of the 2nd World War. Direct preparation for an attack on the Soviet Union, Germany began in 1940 (the plan "Barbarossa"). Together with its European allies, Germany has focused for the attack on the USSR 191.5 divisions; enemy forces totaled 5.5 million. people, approx. 4.3 thousand. Tanks and assault guns, 47.2 thousand. Guns and mortars, approx. 5 thousand. Warplanes, 192 ships. Germany planned against the USSR "lightning war" ("Blitzkrieg"). The efforts of the Soviet Union in the 30s to create a system of collective security have failed. Non-aggression pact with Germany (August 1939) allowed to delay the beginning of the war. However, signed at the same time and at the conclusion in September 1939 treaty of friendship and the border with Germany secret protocols were incompatible with international law, undermine the prestige of the country. The country's defense has been undermined by the totalitarian regime pursued socio-economic policies, massive repression, coverage and military personnel, as well as major failures in military construction, in determining the likely timing of the start of the war, the main fault lies on what Stalin and his entourage . By June 1941 the Red Army had 187 divisions; in its composition was ok. 3 million. People, more than 38 thousand. Guns and mortars, 13.1 thous. Tanks, 8,7 thousand. Warplanes; in the North, Baltic and Black Sea Fleets numbered 182 ships and 1.4 thousand. warplanes. Soviet troops were not fully manned, tanks, planes, anti-aircraft, automobiles, engineering machinery; troops and command structure had a low level of training. June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany treacherously attacked the Soviet Union. Creating on the direction of impact overwhelming, the aggressor broke through the defense of the Soviet troops seized the strategic initiative and dominance in the air. Border battle and beginning of the war (until mid-July) as a whole led to the defeat of the Red Army. She lost 850 killed and wounded thousands. Man 9.5 thousand. Pieces, St. 6 thousand. Tank, approx. 3.5 thousand. Aircraft; were captured approx. 1 million. People. The enemy has occupied much of the country, moved inland to 300-600 km, while losing 100 thousand. People killed, almost 40% of tanks and 950 aircraft. June 23 was created Command Headquarters (August 8 - GHQ). All power was concentrated in the created June 30 the State Defense Committee (GKO). On August 8, Stalin became the Supreme Commander. The main military events of summer-autumn campaign in 1941 was the Battle of Smolensk, the defense of Leningrad and the beginning of its blockade, military catastrophe of Soviet troops in the Ukraine, the defense of Odessa, the beginning of the defense of Sevastopol, loss of Donbass, the defensive during the Battle of Moscow. The Red Army retreated to 850-1200 km, but the enemy was stopped on the main lines of Leningrad, Moscow and Rostov and turned to defense. Winter 1941-42 campaign began counter-offensive on the western strategic direction. In the course of its counterattack carried out at Moscow, Luban, Rzhev-Vyazemskaya Barvenkovsky-Lozovskaya and Kerch-Feodosiya landing operation. Soviet troops withdrew a threat to Moscow and the North. Caucasus, eased the position of Leningrad, wholly or partly released in 10 regions, as well as St. 60 cities. The strategy of "blitzkrieg" collapsed. Was crushed approx. 50 enemy divisions. In the summer-autumn campaign of 1942, Soviet troops had unrealistic goals: to completely defeat the enemy and liberate the entire country. The main military events unfolded in the south-west: the defeat of the Crimean front, military catastrophe of Soviet troops in the Kharkov operation, the Voronezh-Voroshilovgrad, Donbass, Stalingrad defensive operations, the battle on the North. Caucasus. In the north-western direction, the Red Army had Demyansk and Rzhev-Sychevka offensive operations. The enemy advanced on the 500-650 km, reached the Volga, took part of the passes of the Main Caucasian ridge. Was occupied territory, where lived before the war 42% of the population, producing 1/3 of gross production, there were more than 45% of the acreage. Economy translated into a war footing. In the east of the country was moved a large number of enterprises (only in the 2nd half of 1941 - 2593, in Vol. H. 1523 large) exported 2.3 million. Cattle. In the 1st half of 1942 was released 10 thousand. Aircraft, 11 thousand. Tank, approx. 54 thousand. Guns. In the 2nd half of their output has increased by more than 1.5 times. Soviet-British agreement of July 12, 1941 Moscow conference of representatives of the USSR, the US and the UK (29 September - 1 October 1941), the Declaration of 26 states from January 1, 1942 a military alliance of countries who fought against fascism, the Soviet-American agreement on June 11, 1942 formalized the core anti-Hitler coalition. In the winter campaign of 1942-43 were major military events of Stalingrad and North Caucasian offensive, break the siege of Leningrad. The Red Army moved west to 600-700 km, freeing the territory of St. 480 km2, crushed 100 divisions (40% of enemy forces on the Soviet-German front). Created favorable conditions for the completion of the Allied offensive in the North. Africa, Sicily and South. Italy. In the summer-autumn campaign of 1943 was a decisive event in the Battle of Kursk. The important role played by the guerrillas (Operation "Rail war"). During the Battle of the Dnieper were released 38 thousand. Populated areas, in Vol. H. 160 cities; with the capture of the strategic bridgehead on the Dnieper created the conditions for an offensive in Belorussia. In the battle for the Dnieper guerrillas carried out an operation, "Concerto" for the destruction of enemy communications. On the other. Directions implemented Smolensk and Bryansk offensive operations. Red Army has fought its way up to 500-1300 km, crushed 218 divisions. An important stage in the development of international and inter-allied relations became Tehran Conference (28 November - 1 December 1943). In the winter campaign of 1943-44, the Red Army conducted an offensive in the Ukraine (10 simultaneous and successive front-line operations, joint general plan), has completed the rout of Army Group "South", came out on the border with Romania and suffered fighting on its territory. Almost simultaneously turned Leningrad-Novgorod Offensive; Leningrad was finally released. As a result of the Crimean operation liberated Crimea. Soviet troops advanced to the west to 250-450 km, released approx. 300 thousand. Km2, reached the state border with Czechoslovakia. In June 1944, the Allies discovered the 2nd front in France, which worsened the military and political situation in Germany. In the summer-autumn campaign of 1944, Soviet troops had Belarusian, Lvov-Sandomierz, East Carpathian, Iasi-Chisinau, Baltic, Debrecen, Eastern Carpathian, Belgrade, Budapest and partly Petsamo-Kirkenes offensive operations. Completed the liberation of Belarus, Ukraine and the Baltic states (except for some areas of Latvia), part of Czechoslovakia, forced to surrender and went to war against Germany, Romania and Hungary, have been released from the occupants of the Soviet Arctic and northern regions of Norway. 4-11 February 1945 Yalta Conference was held Crimean leaders of the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States. Campaign 1945 in Europe included the East Prussian, Vistula-Oder, the completion of Budapest, East Pomeranian, Lower Silesia, Upper Silesian, West-Carpathian, Vienna and Berlin operations, which resulted in the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. After the Berlin operation Soviet troops together with the 2nd Army of the Polish Army, the 1st and 4th Romanian armies and the 1st Czechoslovak Corps had Prague operations. June 24 in Moscow Victory Parade was held. At occurred in July - August, the Berlin conference of the three great powers had agreed on the postwar world in Europe. August 9, 1945 the Soviet Union, fulfilling allied obligations, began military operations against Japan. During the Manchurian operation Soviet troops defeated the Kwantung Army, liberated South. Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. September 2, 1945, Japan signed the act of unconditional surrender. On the Soviet-German front were defeated and captured 607 enemy divisions, destroyed 75% of its military equipment. According to various reports, Wehrmacht losses amounted to 6,000,000. To 13.7 million. Man. The USSR lost approx. 27 million. Man in t. H. 11.3 million. Man at the front, 4-5 million. Partisans, many people were killed in the occupied territories and in the rear. In Nazi prisoner of war turned out ok. 6 million. Man. The material damage amounted to 679 billion. Rubles. In severe bloody war the Soviet people made a decisive contribution to the liberation of the peoples of Europe from the fascist yoke. Victory Day (May 9) is celebrated every year as a national holiday and a day of remembrance for the victims. GREAT RUSSIA, the official name from the 2nd floor. 17 in. European part of the Russian state, populated mainly Russian. In the royal title was used in the 16th century .; as a geographical concept arose in connection with the accession of Left-Bank Ukraine (Little Russia). From the 19th century. Great Russia. Great French Revolution 1789-99, the largest social revolution of modern times .------ Background and beginning of the revolution ------ material prerequisites of the revolution have been associated with the development of the capitalist system in the depths t. N. the old order and its driving forces were brought to life contradictions that accompany this process. The immediate cause of the revolution was the bankruptcy of the state, were not able to pay its debts monstrous without abandoning archaic system of privileges based on nobility, tribal ties. Unsuccessful attempts of royal power to reform the system exacerbated discontent nobles drop their influence and encroachment on their traditional privileges. Seeking a way out of the financial impasse Louis XVI was forced to convene the States General (5 May 1789), is not going to refuse to discuss with 1614. Specifically, June 17 deputies declared themselves the National Assembly, and on June 23 at the suggestion of Mirabeau refused to obey the king's decree about their dissolution. July 9th Assembly called itself the Constituent proclaiming its goal the production of the constitutional foundations of a new political order. The threat of dissolution of the Constituent Assembly has caused an uprising in Paris. July 14, 1789 was taken by storm the Bastille fortress-prison, a symbol of absolutism. This day is considered the date of the beginning of the Revolution .------ Constitutional monarchy ------ After storming of the Bastille on a wave of "municipal revolution", during which created new elected local governments. Formed an army of the revolution - the National Guard, headed by a Lafayette. Riots broke out in the village of peasants burned castles, destroyed documents feudal rights and liege archives. Constituent Assembly in the night on 4 August called "night of miracles", announced the "total destruction of the feudal order" and the abolition of some of the most odious liege rights. The remaining obligations of the peasants were to be prohibitive for ransom. The principles of a new civil society have been enshrined in the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" (August 26 1789). ------ "Declaration" was the preamble to the text of the Constitution, the development of which lasted until September 1791. The constitutional debate in the Assembly accompanied by a decree regulating the most important aspects of life in France. Adopted a new territorial-administrative division of the country, to create a modern departments. "Civil Constitution of the Clergy" - the election of church officials, priests mandatory oath of allegiance to the Constitution - has deprived the Catholic Church independent political role. Undertaken for the payment of the public debt and running costs selling t. N. national property (confiscated church lands and emigration, as well as the Crown), release their software under the assignats, had a compulsory course and depreciate quickly led to a redistribution of property. At the first stage of the revolution power was in the hands of that part of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, which had financial claims against the royal power and strive to meet them at any cost .------ country's political leadership was carried out while the group feyyanov. The most famous of t. N. "Patriotic Society" was the Jacobin Club. Through an extensive network of branches in the province had an enormous influence on the politicization of a large part of the population. Acquired unprecedented importance journalism: "other people" JP Marat, "Daddy Duchesne" J. Hebert, "French patriot" JP Brissot, "Iron mouth" N. Bonneville, "Village sheets" J. A. Cerutti and other newspapers introduces the reader with a complex palette of political struggle. ------ King, head of the state to maintain the status, but are actually in Paris on a hostage, June 21, 1791 with his family tried to flee in the Austrian Netherlands, but was identified and arrested in the town of Varennes. "Varennsky crisis" compromised the constitutional monarchy. On July 17, the Champ de Mars in Paris was shot mass demonstration, demanding the abdication of Louis XVI. Trying to save the monarchy, the Assembly allowed the king to sign the constitution finally adopted and, having exhausted his powers broke up. The same "Varennsky crisis" was the signal for the formation of a coalition of European powers against revolutionary France .------ ------ Girondins in power in the new Legislative Assembly feyyany were pushed into the background came out of the bowels of the Jacobin Club Girondins headed with JP Brissot, PV is true, JA Condorcet. Since the beginning of 1792 the Girondins began to discuss measures, prepares the separation of church and state. 18 June and 25 August Legislature abolished the redemption of feudal rights, except in cases where strict "original" documents, causes the transfer of land to certain obligations. At the initiative of the Girondins April 20, 1792, France declared war on Austria, on the side which was soon made Prussia .------ for each revolution inevitable ruin, inflation, rising high cost are facing growing protests rural and urban populations. The failure of the first months of the war gave rise to suspicions of infidelity. Parisian sans-culottes crowd of 20 June 1792 broke into the Tuileries, but never succeeded in getting the King sanction of expulsion decrees neprisyagnuvshih priests and the establishment of a military camp near Paris to save the capital from the Austrian and Prussian armies. ------ In July, the Legislative Assembly declared the country in danger. In the revolutionary army of volunteers flooded. August 10 Parisian sections, territorial grassroots associations, with the support of the province, led a revolt. The overthrow of the monarchy was the pinnacle of political success Girondins .------ 21 September 1792 the legislature passed to the Convent, which competed with the Girondins Montagnards, led by M. Robespierre. Proponents of the latter in the days of the Constituent Assembly sat in the courtroom on the uppermost benches, for which he received the nickname Mountains .------ which began immediately after the uprising August 10, 1792 speech Prussian-Austrian troops caused the rise of a new national simultaneously trigger another rumors of a conspiracy in the rear. Mass beatings of prisoners in the prisons of Paris at the beginning of September 1792 was a harbinger of the coming terror. September 20 at Valmy (west of Verdun) French Revolutionary Army under the command of generals FE Kellerman and S. F. Dumouriez won its first victory. November 6 at Zhemape Dumouriez defeated the Austrians and occupied Belgium. However, the war required all new forces. Conscription 300 thousand. Man, decreed by the Convention in February 1793, has angered a number of departments and gave rise to the top of the Vendee, bloody peasant war in the west of France, as well as the uprisings in the south-east, in Toulon and Marseilles. ------ ------ Jacobin dictatorship economic crisis, riots, rebellion is growing peasants Wanda defeat at Neervindene (March 18, 1793) associated with the Girondins Dumouriez and his desertion to the enemy predetermined drop in the party and the death of her chiefs. The transfer of power to the Montagnards in the result of the next uprising of Parisians May 31 - June 2, 1793 meant the political victory of the new bourgeoisie - capital arising during the revolution through the purchase and sale of national assets and inflation - over the old order and the capital is mainly composed before 1789. Victory Montagnards nationwide preceded them victory over their opponents in the Jacobin Club; therefore established their regime was called the Jacobin dictatorship .------ In terms of external and internal war Jacobin government has gone to the most extreme measures. Even before coming to power, the Montagnards have execution of the King: January 21, 1793 of Louis XVI was guillotined in Paris at the Revolution Square, now the Place de la Concorde. On the agrarian legislation Jacobins (June-July 1793) were transferred to the peasants and the emigre community land for the section; completely destroyed without compensation all feudal rights and privileges. In September 1793 the government established a general maximum - the upper limit of the price of consumer goods and wages of workers. Maximum meet the aspirations of the poor; but it was very profitable and large traders, fabulously bogatevshim in the wholesale supply, for ruined their competitors - small shopkeepers .------ Jacobins continued attack on the Catholic Church and introduced the republican calendar. In 1793, a constitution was adopted, declared universal suffrage, but the implementation of this principle has been postponed until better times because of the critical situation of the country. Jacobin dictatorship, have successfully used the initiative of the lower classes, demonstrated a complete denial of liberal principles. Industrial production and agriculture, finance and trade, public festivals and private lives of citizens - all are subject to strict regulation. However, this did not stop the further deepening economic and social crisis. In September 1793 Convention "put on the agenda of terror." ------ Highest executive body of the Jacobin dictatorship - Committee of Public Safety - sent their representatives in all departments, giving them extraordinary powers. Starting with those who are hoping to revive the old order or simply reminded about it, did not spare the Jacobin terror and famous revolutionaries as JJ Danton and Desmoulins K. The concentration of power in the hands of Robespierre was accompanied by complete isolation caused by mass executions. The decisive victory of General JB Jourdan June 26, 1794 at Fleurus (Belgium) over the Austrians gave guarantees the inviolability of the new property, the problem of the Jacobin dictatorship have been exhausted and the need for it anymore. The coup on July 27-28 (9 Thermidor) 1794 sent Robespierre and his closest associates under the knife of the guillotine .------ Thermidorian Reaction and director ------ In September 1794 the first time in the history of France adopted a decree on the separation of church and state. Did not stop the confiscation and sale of emigre property. In the summer of 1795 Republican Army General L. Gosh defeated rebel forces - Chouans and royalists, with English ships landed on the peninsula of Quiberon (Brittany). 5 October (13 Vendémiaire) 1795 Republican troops of Napoleon Bonaparte suppressed the royalist revolt in Paris. However, politics is replaced by power groups (Thermidorians, Directory) increasing scope acquired control of the masses. Were suppressed popular uprisings in Paris on April 1 and 20-23 May 1795 (12-13 Germinal and Prairial 1-4). Large-scale external aggression - Napoleonic Wars in Italy, Egypt, and so on. Etc.-protected Thermidorian France and the threat of the restoration of the old order and the new rise of the revolutionary movement. The revolution ended 9 November (18 Brumaire) 1799 establishment of "hard power" - the dictatorship of Napoleon .------ References: ------ French Revolution: Index of Russian and Soviet literature. M., 1987 .------ The French Revolution of the XVIII century. Economics, politics, ideology. M., 1988 .------ The French Revolution and Russia. M., 1989 .------ Documents History of the French Revolution. M., 1992. T. 1-2 .------ Archives parlementaires de 1787 a 1860. Recueil complet des debats legislatifs et politiques des Chambres francaises fonde par J. Mavidal et E. Laurent. Premiere serie: 1787-1799. Paris, 1867. (Publication continued) .------ Furet F. Penser la Revolution francaise. Paris, 1978 .------ Soboul A. La Civilisation et la Revolution francaise. Paris, 1982-1983. V. 1-2 .------ Lefebvre G. La France sous le Directoire 1795-1799. Paris, 1984 .------ L'Image de la Revolution francaise. Paris; Oxford a. o., 1989-1990. V. 1-4 .------ C. J. Karp ------ Magna Carta, the charter signed in 1215 by the English King John landless. Limited (mainly in the interests of the aristocracy) the rights of the king, provided certain privileges chivalry, top free peasantry cities. Among the existing instruments of the constitution of Great Britain.
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