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Baignoire (fr. Baignoire), lodges in the theater on both sides of the stalls at the scene or slightly lower. Benue (Benue), a river in Cameroon and Nigeria, left tributary of the Niger. 1300 km, the basin area 441 thousand. Km2. Average water consumption 3170 m3 / s. Navigable from the town of Ibi in the rainy season - from the town of Garoua. Benue-Congo languages, subfamily Niger-Congo languages. BENTSUR (Benczur) Gyula (1844-1920), a Hungarian painter. Spectacular, dynamic historical paintings on national themes ("Farewell L. Hunyadi", 1866). Benko Pavel Petrovich (1879-1949), painter, Honored Artist of Uzbekistan (1939). Master plein air painting ("Girl with dutar", 1947). Played a major role in the education of national artists in Tatarstan and Uzbekistan. Bunyan (Bunyan), John (1628-88), English writer, a religious preacher. In an allegorical novel "The Pilgrim's Progress" (1678-84) parasitism and greed of higher social strata opposed virtues of ordinary people. In "Life and Death of Mr. Bedmana" (1680) - the first in English literature of the bourgeois way of accumulators. Benyuk (Beniuc) Mihai (b. 1907), Romanian writer. Revolutionary-romantic collection "Songs of perdition" (1938). Approval of new relations in the lyrical collections "at Apple Tree Road" (1954), "Night Patrol" (1975). The novel "A muffled explosion" (1971) about the Communists 40s. "Beowulf" (Beowulf), an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic. Named for the hero, the legendary King of Scandinavian tribe in southern Sweden. At the heart of the poem folk tales dating back to the 1st floor. 6. and wafting echoes of historical events. List of beginning. 10. - The British Museum. BEOLKO (Beolco) Angelo (stage name Rudzante) (1502-42), Italian playwright and actor. Expanded opportunities t. N. scientific Renaissance comedy by entering into it dialects and features of folk life (comedy "Ankonitanka", "Cow", "Povana"). Boeotarch in Dr. Greece higher magistrates in Boeotia. Boeotian Union, Federation of Greek states in Boeotia (area in Wed Greece) headed by Thebes with 6 in. BC. e. In the 4th century. Pelopidas and Epaminondas at - the largest political force in Greece. In 338 dissolved in 3.2 cc. rebuilt in 146 BC. e. ceased to exist after the conquest of Greece by Rome. Beppu, a city and port in Japan on about. Kyushu. 130 thousand. Inhabitants (1990). Non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and textile industries. Spa centers; tourism center. Research Institute of Volcanology, balneology. BER (Baer) Paul (1833-86), a French physician, psychologist, social activist. In 1882-86 - Minister of Education of France. Conducted research on the transplantation of organs and tissues from one animal to another and cross-circulation. His classic works on respiratory physiology (1869) and the effect of barometric pressure on the body (1878) were later assessed as fundamental to the aviation and submarine medicine. First studied hyperbaric oxygenation, oxygen toxicity symptoms. Beranger (Beranger) Jean Pierre (1780-1857), French poet. Gained fame satire on Napoleon's regime ("King of Yvetot," 1813). Folk verse raised to a height of professional art. Songs of Beranger, imbued with the revolutionary spirit, humor, optimism, plebeian directness, gained wide popularity. In 1821 and in 1828 was imprisoned on charges of insulting religion and public morality (the song "Capuchins", "Guardian Angel"), as well as insulting the king ("Navarre Prince", "White Cockade"). Shared ideas of utopian socialism (the poem "Mad Men"). The book "My Biography" (1857). BERARDIUSY, the same as floaters. Burbank (Burbank) Luther (1849-1926), an American breeder. Author of many varieties of fruit, vegetables, field crops and ornamentals. Burbage (Burbage) Richard (c. 1567-1619), English actor. The representative of the Theatre of the Renaissance. A friend of Shakespeare, which to Burbage created the role of Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and others. Berbera, city and port in Somalia, on the banks of Aden Hall. 65 thousand. Inhabitants (1981). Fishing. Cement Plant. Berberine, an alkaloid found in the leaves of barberry and other plants of different families. Berberine sulfate - cholagogue. Berberova Nina (1901-93), Russian writer. In 1922 he emigrated. A cycle of stories "Biyankurskie holidays" (1928-40) on the fate of Russian emigration. Autobiographical book "My italics" (in English - 1969, in Russian - 1972). The novel "The Iron Lady" (1981) about the adventures of Russian emigrant. The study "People and lodges. Russian Masons of the 20th century" (1986). Libyan Berbers LANGUAGES branch Afro-Asiatic language family. Genealogical classification is largely hypothetical. Written records recorded species Libyan consonant letters, going back to his surviving Tifinagh alphabet and the Latin alphabet. Berbera (self - amahag), a group of people (Tamazight, reef, shilh, Tuareg, Kabila, Chaoui people et al.), The indigenous population of North. Africa, Central and West. Sudan. 11,520,000. People (1992). Speak Berber-Libyan languages. By religion - mainly Sunni Muslims. Burbidge (Burbidge), a family of American astronomers Jeffrey (1925) and his wife Eleanor Marguerite (1919). One of the creators of the theory of stellar structure and evolution and the theory of the origin of the chemical elements in the Universe (1957). Berwald (Berwald) Franz Adolf (1796-1868), Swedish composer, violinist, conductor. One of the first Swedish symphonic. Opera "Estrella de Soria" (1841, staged in 1862), cantatas, symphonies, concertos. Professor of the Royal Academy of Music (later Conservatory) in Stockholm. Bervi-Flerovsky Vasily Vasilyevich (1829-1918), the Russian sociologist, journalist, economist and writer, a member of the social movement 1860-90-ies. In the beginning. 1870s. close to "Tchaikovsky" and "dolgushintsam". In 1862-87 in exile, the employee magazine "Business", "word", "Notes of the Fatherland." Works: "The situation of the working class in Russia" (1869), "The ABCs of Social Sciences" (1871), memoirs "Notes of a revolutionary dreamer" (1929), the novel "On life and death. Picture idealists" (Geneva, 1877, in Russian - 1907). Berg Berg (1893-1979), the Russian scientist, academician of the USSR (1946), engineer-admiral (1955), Hero of Socialist Labor (1963). Works on the radio. An active participant in solving the basic problems of the development of electronics in the USSR. The initiator and director of research in cybernetics and its applications. Berg (Berg) Alban (1885-1935), Austrian composer. Representative of the new Viennese school. Evolved from the musical Romanticism to Expressionism. One of the founders of serial technique (see. Dodecaphony). Humanism and social criticism reflected in the opera "Wozzeck" (1921). Opera "Lulu" (1935), chamber and instrumental compositions (in Vol. H. "Lyric Suite", 1926), vocal cycles, etc .; literary works. BERG Lev Semenovich (1876-1950), and fizikogeograf biologist, academician of the USSR (1946). Developed the doctrine of landscapes and developed the ideas of Dokuchaev of natural areas. First implemented zonal physiographic zoning of the USSR. Capital works on ichthyology (anatomy, taxonomy and distribution of fish), climatology, Limnology, as well as the history of geography. In 1922 he put forward the concept of evolutionary nomogenesis. President of the Geographical Society of the USSR (1940-50). USSR State Prize (1951) .BERG Lev Semenovich (Simonovic) [2 (14) in March 1876, Bender - December 24, 1950, Leningrad, now St. Petersburg], the Russian scholar and lexicographer, a zoologist, geographer, evolutionist historian nauki.Rodilsya in a Jewish family, his father was a notary. Studying in Chisinau high school (1885-94), was fond of natural science - collecting herbarium, dissected fish, read the scientific literature. In 1894, he was baptized and entered the Moscow University. Already a student became famous experiments on fish breeding. Diploma work on embryology pike was 6th Berg published work. After graduation (1898, gold medal) worked in the Ministry of Agriculture inspector of fisheries in the Aral Sea and the Volga River, explored steppe lakes, rivers, pustyni.V 1902-1903 Berg hydrology studies in Bergen (Norway) in 1904-13 works Zoological Museum of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in 1913 moved to Moscow, where he received a professorship at the Moscow Agricultural Institute. In 1916, Berg was invited to the department of physical geography at St. Petersburg University, where he worked until his death. The first major scientific work of Berg - "Fish Turkestan" (1905) and master's thesis "Aral Sea" (1908), for which Berg received a doctorate in geography at once. In 1909-16 Berg published 5 books on fish Russia, but the main subject of his research interests is becoming geography. He developed a theory of the origin of loess, offered the first classification of natural areas of the Asian part of Russia. By this time, formed the scientific style and methods of work of Berg, smote the extraordinary productivity (he owns more than 800 works). His distinguished iron self-discipline, tenacious memory, ability to work without drafts and in any conditions, clarity, and clarity of presentation (text begins with definitions) and conclusions, beautiful literary yazyk.Berg stood aloof from politics, but acutely experienced the horrors of war and revolution, treating them as a brief triumph of the principle of the fight over the principle of co-operation. Lacking in this period conditions for field work, Berg expanded educational activities (in 1916-18 - in Moscow and Petrograd in parallel) and written ("warming freezing ink on fire wick lamp") 3 work on the theory of evolution (1922). In these analyzes the basic concepts (evolution, progress, expediency, randomness, the emergence of a new, simple theory, orientation), rejected the role of the struggle for existence as a factor of evolution (both in nature and in society), sharply limited the role of natural selection (it only protects the norm), and put forward an original theory of evolution - nomogenesis, t. e., based on the evolution of zakonomernostey.Teoriya had a number of weaknesses that colleagues (AA Lyubishchev, DN Sobolev, Yu Filipchenko) once noted, but mostly criticism took ideological character, especially after the release of the English edition of "nomogenesis" (1926). Vavilov, who defended Berg from persecution, he wrote (1927): "You we will not let the post. The ship should be conducted, which would be a monster or get in the way." More about the mechanisms of evolution Berg wrote. In 1928 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1946 - academician) as a geographer. In geography Berg known as the creator of the theory of domestic Limnology and landscape ("Geography is the science of landscape"). In climatology Berg gave climate classification in relation to the landscape, desertification explained by human activities, and glaciers - "factors of the cosmic order." Berg denied the drift of continents; after VI Vernadsky, he drew back the origin of life to the very beginning of the geological istorii.V zoogeography Berg offered his interpretation of the spread of fish and other aquatic animals, eg., showed the local origin of the fauna of Lake Baikal, and the composition of the fauna of the Caspian Sea, on the contrary, explained to postglacial migration Volga. In ichthyology main works Berg: "System and fish-fish, living and fossil" (1940) and the classic three-volume "Freshwater Fish of the USSR and adjacent countries" (1949, State Prize in 1951), maintaining its scientific value today, as well as numerous work on breeding and fishing ryb.Interes Berg to the history and ethnography, which originated in his youth ("Urals on the Syr Darya", 1900), have not lost over the years. In this area of his work devoted to Russian discoveries in Asia, Antarctica, Alaska ("Essays on the History of Russian Geographical Discoveries", 1949), ancient maps, the home of small nations (Gagauz, manholes, etc.), Biographies of scientists. Berg has been restored thanks to a lot of forgotten names and facts Russian priority. As an ethnographer Berg used in scientific work Languages and zoology (eg., "The names of the fish and ethnic relations Slavs", 1948) .Sochineniya: Selected Works. M .; L. 1956-62. T.1-5.Trudy on the theory of evolution. L. 1976.Literatura: Krupennikov IA Berg LS Chisinau, 1976. V. Tchaikovsky Berg (Berg) Paul (b. 1926), American biochemist. Studied the role of transfer RNA in protein biosynthesis. Got a recombinant DNA molecule of two different viruses, which studied the structure of individual genes. Nobel Prize (1980). BERG Fyodor (Friedrich Wilhelm Rembert) (1793-1874), Earl (1856), Russian Field Marshal (1865). Member of the Patriotic War of 1812, the foreign campaigns of the Russian Army 1813-14, Russian-Turkish War of 1828-29. In 1863-66 execute the office of governor-general and commander of the troops in Poland, led the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-64. BERGAMO (Bergamo), a city in the North. Italy, the administrative center of the province. Bergamo. 118 thousand. Inhabitants (1990). Elektrometallurgical, engineering, chemical, cement, textile industry; production of maps. University. Accademia Carrara with an art gallery. Palazzo della Ragione (12 in.), The church of Santa Maria Maggiore (12-18 cc.). Homeland Donizetti. Bergamot, 1) evergreen tree genus citrus family Rutaceae. In the Mediterranean, India, Sri Lanka, as well as in Georgia. Fruits, flowers, leaves - essential oil ... 2) pear varieties (Bergamot autumn, summer Bergamot et al.) With spherical, slightly flattened, vinnosladkimi fruits. Yields of up to 130-200 kg per tree. Bergamot, .. 1) evergreen tree genus citrus family Rutaceae. In the Mediterranean, India, Sri Lanka, as well as in Georgia. Fruits, flowers, leaves - essential oil ... 2) pear varieties (Bergamot autumn, summer Bergamot et al.) With spherical, slightly flattened, vinnosladkimi fruits. Yields of up to 130-200 kg per tree. Bergholz Olga Fedorovna (1910-75), Russian writer. Lyrical works about the heroic defense of Leningrad. Poem "February Diary", "Leningrad poem" (both 1942), "Pervorossiisk" (1950), an autobiographical book "Daily Star" (1959). USSR State Prize (1951). Bergelson Rafailovich David (1884-1952), Jewish writer (Russia). Psychological Science "After all" (1913), "waste" (1920) about the fate of the Jewish intelligentsia. The novel "On the Dnieper" (book 1-2, 1932-40), about the life of Jews in Russia in the beginning. 20 in., Before the Revolution of 1905-07. repressed; posthumously rehabilitated. Bergelson Lev Davidovich (b. 1918), chemist and biochemist, member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1968). Son DR Bergel'son. Works on chemistry of biopolymers and physiologically active compounds, stereochemistry and conformational analysis. The study of biological membranes. USSR State Prize (1985). Bergen (Bergen), a city and port in Norway, at the Beau-fjord, the administrative center of Hordaland county. 213 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Mechanical engineering (in Vol. H. Shipbuilding), fish processing, textile industry. Near Bergen - a major petrochemical complex. University. Based app. 1070. In the Middle Ages - one of the largest shopping centers in the Northwest. Europe (was part of the German Hansa to 1630). Remnants of the fortress to the royal hall Hokonskhallen (13 in.) And Rosenkrantz Tower (16 in.), The Romanesque church of Mary (12 in.). House-museum of Edvard Grieg (Troldhaugen). Berger (Berger; Present Fam. Steinberger, Steinberger) Helmut (b. 1944), Austrian actor. He was famous for filming movies L. Visconti's "Twilight of the Gods" (1969), "Ludwig" (1972), "Family portrait in the interior" (1974). Game Berger, performing the role of men is usually broken, eaten secret vices, different subtle elegance and a deep psychological insight. Bergius (Bergius) Friedrich (1884-1949), a German chemical engineer. Developed (1913) method of producing liquid motor fuel destructive hydrogenation of coal and heavy oils (berginizatsiya). Nobel Prize (1931, together with K. Bosch). BERGMAN (Bergmann) Gustav (1878-1955), a German physician. Clinically and experimentally developed the doctrine of functional pathology. BERGMAN (Bergman) Ingmar (b. 1918), Swedish film director. Movies: "Sawdust and Tinsel" (1953), "The Seventh Seal", "Wild Strawberries" (both 1957), "The Face" (1958), "The Silence" (1963), "Autumn Sonata" (1978), "Fanny and Alexander "(1983) and others. It develops the theme of tragic loneliness in modern society. Staged performances in theaters, opera houses. Ingrid BERGMAN (1915-82), Swedish actress. Filmed in the movies: "Gaslight," "Bewitched," "Stromboli", "Europe-51," "Murder on the Orient Express," "Autumn Sonata" and others. BERGMAN (Bergmann) Ernst (1836-1907) , a German surgeon. One of the founders of asepsis. Proceedings of the surgery of the skull and the brain. BERGMAN (Bergman) Hjalmar (1883-1931), Swedish writer. Socio-psychological novels "Markurelly of Vadchepinga" (1919), "The grandmother and the Lord God" (1921), "Clown Yak" (1930), chamber drama, comedy. Bergson (Bergson), Henri (1859-1941), French philosopher, representative of intuitionism and philosophy of life. Genuine and original reality, according to Bergson, - life as a metaphysical-cosmic process, "elan vital" creative evolution; its structure - the duration, apprehended only through intuition, intellect opposite; different aspects of duration - matter, consciousness, memory, spirit ("Creative Evolution", Russian translation 1914). Nobel Prize in literature as a brilliant stylist (1927) .BERGSON (Bergson) Henri Louis (October 18, 1859, Paris - January 4, 1941, ibid), French philosopher, and a representative of intuitional philosophy of life, the creator of the original philosophical and ethical-religious concept, which is based on the idea of the dynamics of human consciousness and the world. Education and the beginning of teaching of Bergson's father, Michel Bergson, composer and musician, professor of the Geneva Conservatory, was a Jew, a native of Poland; mother came from a Jewish family who lived in England. Bergson received a classical education, the legacy of the French intellectual elite circles. In 1878, after graduating from Lycée Condorcet in Paris, he entered the Ecole Normale Supérieure; then taught at the Lyceum of Angers (1881-83). In 1883 he took the chair of philosophy at the Lycée Blaise Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand. The first works rethink the concept of time, Bergson developed the concept of "pure duration", presented by him in the first major work, "An Essay on the immediate data of consciousness" (1889). In a polemic with the theories of psychological determinism and psychophysics he describes the human mind as continuously changing, creative reality, like a stream in which thinking is only the surface layer, reporting requirements of practice and social life. In the depths of his consciousness layers can be comprehended only effort of self-observation (introspection) and intuition. Since 1888 Bergson in Paris, where he began prepodavat- first high schools in Louis the Great and Henry IV, then - at the College Rollin (1889-1900) and the Ecole Normale Superieure. In "Matter and Memory" (1896), Bergson shows that matter and mind, body and mind - a phenomenon reconstructed by reason of the facts of direct experience of the primary intuition, which gives us a moving indivisible continuity. The basis of knowledge is pure perception, but in the real cognitive process always communicates with memory, and this process forms various levels, "plans" consciousness. "Creative Evolution" Bergson Since 1900 - Professor of the College de France; his lectures that aroused great interest among the educated public, formed the basis of his main work "Creative Evolution" (1907). Bergson drew here a grandiose picture of the evolutionary process, metaphorically called "elan vital", the deployment of which leads to the emergence and development of life on Earth; the main line of evolution - the instinct and intelligence. Bergson argues that consciousness and life fundamentally inaccessible positive science, which is limited to the sphere of "unorganized matter" and can only perceive relationships between things. But philosophy is based on a direct vision of things, intuition, and the sum of its intuitions should give a holistic view of reality. Late works "Creative Evolution" Bergson brought glory not only a philosopher, but also a writer (in 1927 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature). After this work, Bergson wrote a long time only articles (included in the collections of "spiritual energy", 1919 "Thought and moving", 1934; his only book - "The duration and simultaneity" (1922) on the theory of Einstein's relativity. See also lectures in the United States, Britain, and Spain. in 1914 he was elected president of the Academy of moral and Political Sciences and member of the French Academy of Sciences. during the First world War proved to be a diplomat in Spain and the USA. in 1922 he became the first president of the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation . at the end of the 1920s. due to illness gradually moved away from the practice. His ethical-religious concept is described by him in "Two sources of Morality and Religion" (1932). Contrasting the two types of companies: closed striving for self-preservation and relying on principles of authoritarianism and violence, and an open, embodied in the great personalities - moral heroes, Christian mysticism, and so on. n., Bergson ties with them are two types of morality and religion - static and dynamic. The possibility of further progress of human society Bergson sees only in an open society, a dynamic morality, highlighting as the main principles of love for humanity, "the spirit of simplicity," the rejection of artificial needs, is mainly due to the development of the "body" to the detriment of mankind's spiritual culture. Bergson's philosophy has had a significant influence on the intellectual atmosphere in France and other countries; the impact of his ideas tested E. Leroy, P. Teilhard de Chardin, Arnold Toynbee, J.. Santayana, A. Whitehead and many others. Compositions: Coll. cit .: In 5 t. SPb., 1913-14.Sobr. cit .: In 4 t. M, 1992. T. 1.Smeh. M., 1992. Ecrits et paroles. Paris, 1957-1959. V. 1-3.Oeuvres. Paris, 1959. References: Svasyan KA aesthetic essence intuitive philosophy of Bergson. Yerevan, 1978.Benrudi I. Souvenirs sur Henri Bergson. Neuchatel; Paris, 1942.Jankelevitch V. Henri Bergson. Paris, 1959.Skarga B. Czas i trwanie. Studia o Bergsonie. Warszava, 1982.Mosse-Bastide R.-M. Bergson educateur. Paris, 1995.I. I. Blauberg Bergstrom (Bergstrom) Suna (b. 1916), Swedish biochemist, a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1976), Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (1982). Major works on the chemistry and biochemistry of prostaglandins. Nobel Prize (1982, together with B. and J. Samuelson. R. Wayne). BERGSHTRIHI (pointers slope), short strokes on the horizontals topographic maps indicating the direction down the hill. BERD (Byrd) P., See. R. Baird BERD (Byrd), William (c. 1543-1623), English composer, organist, verdzhinelist, notoizdatel. The creator of the English madrigal. Fantasies, variations, dances for verdzhinela and viola, Mass, psalms and others. BERD Charles (Karl Nikolaevich) (1766-1843), a Russian engineer, entrepreneur, owner. A native of Scotland, from 1786 in Russia. The first in Russia in 1805-06 designed and built in St. Petersburg iron bridge "on the arcs." Built a shipyard, founded (1815) Shipping on the Neva. Led the manufacturing and installation of gratings, bas-reliefs, sculptures, lamps, ceiling et al. Metal bearing structures and components. In its first in Russia mechanical foundry in St. Petersburg (founded in 1792) made the bas-reliefs of the Alexander Column, structural elements of the pediment and the dome of St. Isaac's Cathedral and others. Fabricate and install spans all suspension bridges Petersburg. Berdan rifle, single shot rifles American inventor H. Berdan, advanced in the 60s. 19 in. Russian engineers AP Gorlov and KI Guniusom. Russian Army in 1868-91. Byrd (pres. Name and fam. Berdimurat Kargabaev) (1827-1900), Karakalpak poet. Lyrical, satirical, didactic poems, historical poem, poem antidespoticheskaya-tale "Tsar-tyrant." Burgess (Burgess) Anthony (1917-93), English writer. Satirical novel "The right of reply" (1960); "Black Utopia" "End of the World News" (1982) and "1985" (1978). The theme of the antihero - in the novel "A Clockwork Orange" (1962) and "A Clockwork Testament World" (1974), as well as in the parody "kontrbiografiyah" William Shakespeare (1964) and George. Keats (1977). Author of music. BERDZENISHVILI Merab Isidorovich (b. 1929), Georgian sculptor, People's Artist of the USSR (1987), corresponding member of the Academy of Arts (1988). Monumental, plastically expressive monument in honor of the 30th anniversary of Victory in Marneuli (1975), decorative sculpture ("Medea" Picunda). USSR State Prize (1976). Berdych, the city (from 1845) in Ukraine, Zhitomir region. Railway junction. 93.4 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Plants: Machine Tool, Chemical Engineering. Furniture, printing, light industry, food industry. Originated in the 15th century. Berdnikov George Petrovich (1915-1996), Russian literary critic, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1974). Books on the history of Russian literature of the 19th century. State Prize of the USSR (1985). Berd, a town (since 1944) in the Russian Federation, Novosibirsk., At p. Berd, near its confluence with the Novosibirsk reservoir. Railway station. 81.2 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). ON "Vega" (stereo ELECTROPLAYERS, tape recorders, etc..); plants: chemical, rubber products, etc.. The food and light industry. Founded in the beginning. 18 in. Beardsley (Beardsley) (Beardsley) Aubrey (1872-98) was an English painter. Painfully fragile drawings, virtuoso playing different silhouettes and lines (illustration for "Salome" O. Wilde, 1894), influenced by the graphics style "modern". Hammers (Pol. Berdysz), edged weapons, a long-bladed ax with a crescent on long shafts; in service with the Russian infantry in 15-17 centuries. Close to the hammers type of weapon was halberd. Nikolai Berdyaev (1874-1948), Russian religious philosopher. Participated in the book "Milestones" (1909), "Out of the depths" (1918). In 1922, expelled from Soviet Russia. Since 1925 - in France, issued a religious-philosophical journal "The Way" (Paris, 1925-40). Moved from Marxism to the philosophy of individuality and freedom in the spirit of religious existentialism and personalism. Freedom, spirit, personality, creativity contrasted Berdyaev necessary, the world of objects, in which the reigning evil, suffering, slavery. The meaning of history, according to Berdyaev, mystically perceived in the world of the free spirit, outside of historical time. Major works (translated into many languages): "The Meaning of Creativity" (1916), "The Philosophy of Dostoevsky's" (1923), "The Philosophy of the Free Spirit" (vols. 1-2, 1927-28), "Russian idea" (1948) "Self" (1949) .BERDYAEV Nikolai [6 (18) March 1874, Kiev - March 23, 1948, Clamart, France], Russian religious filosof.Ranny periodBerdyaev belonged to the noble military-aristocratic family. He studied at the Kiev Cadet Corps (1884-94) and the University of Kiev (1894-98) on the natural, then the law faculty. Since 1894 he joined the Marxist circles in 1898 for participating in them expelled from the university, was arrested and sent to 3 years in Vologda. In 1901-02 Berdyaev did evolution characteristic of Russian intellectual life of those years and has been called "the movement from Marxism to idealism." Along with SN Bulgakov, P. Struve, S. Frank Berdyaev becomes one of the leading figures of this movement, which declared itself a collection of "Problems of Idealism" (1902) marked the beginning of the religious and philosophical revival in Russia. Since 1904 Berdyaev lives in St. Petersburg, led by the magazine "New Way" and "Questions of Life". He approaches the circle DSMerezhkovsky, ZNGippius, VV Rozanov et al., Which appeared during the called "new religious state." Article these years are collected in books Berdyaev "Sub specie aeternitatis: Experiments philosophical, social and literary 1900-1906" (1907) and "new religious consciousness and the public" (1907); they put it, in his self-esteem, "Anarchism religious tendencies." From 1908 he lived in Moscow, entered the circle of figures of book publishing "The Way", and Religious and Philosophical Society of memory Vl. Solovyov; participated in the collection of "Milestones" (1909). The original philosophy of Berdyaev begins to take shape in 1911-12, when after a stay in Italy and thought about the Renaissance age-old theme of freedom in Berdyaev complemented the theme of creativity and its inevitable tragedy ("The Meaning of Creativity", 1916) .yr revolution revolutionary years - the time of intensive creative and social Berdyaev activities. Russian tsarist regime he considered decomposed and the revolution justified; but the reality of the victorious revolution pushed him away, and in early 1919 he wrote the book "The Philosophy of inequality" (published 1923), which rejected democracy and socialism as "forced and compulsory virtue brotherhood." He later returned to the recognition of the socialist idea, but was always opposed to the Bolshevik totalitarianism and saw his duty in the spiritual opposition to him. He spends at home weekly literary and philosophical meetings, organizes Free Academy of Spiritual Culture (end of 1918), public lectures and became recognized as a leader-Bolshevik public. Member of the book "Out of the depths" (1918). Twice he was arrested and autumn of 1922 deported to Germany as part of a large group of figures of Russian science and culture. In Berlin, Berdyaev organizes religious-philosophical academy, participated in the creation of the Russian Scientific Institute, promotes the formation of Russian Student Christian Movement (RSCM) .In exile in France in 1924, he moved to France, where he settled in Clamart near Paris, becoming editor of the magazine he founded "The Way" (1925-40), the most important philosophical authority of the Russian emigration. With a small book about the meaning of the modern era "New Middle Ages" (1924) begins with a broad European fame Berdyaev, and gradually it planned a special role thinker intermediary between Russian and Western cultures. He met with the leading Western thinkers (Scheler, Keyserling, J. Maritain, Marcel G. O., L. Lavelle et al.), Arranges inter-religious meeting of Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox (1926-28), regular interviews with Catholic philosophy (1st half of the 1930s.), participates in kulturfilosofskij "decades Pontigny" philosophical meetings and congresses. Personalistic for the French left-wing Catholics that had developed in the mid-1930s. around the magazine "Esprit", headed by E. Mounier, arises and develops under the direct influence of the ideas of Berdyaev about having to connect the Christian faith, spiritual freedom and social justice. In the West, also became an influential interpretation of Berdyaev Russian history and Russian national consciousness, Bolshevism and revolution, expressed mainly in the book "Origin of Russian Communism" (1937) and "Russian idea" (1946). Berdyaev believes that "Russian communism is a transformation and deformation of the old Russian messianic idea. Communism in Western Europe would have been a totally different phenomenon." During the 2nd World War, Berdyaev there hope for the humanization of the Soviet regime, he even comes into contact with his representatives (1944-46), but the news of repression and new ideological campaigns terminated his pro-Soviet sentiments. In the postwar years Berdyaev gives the most mature exposition of his philosophy ("The experience of the eschatological metaphysics", 1947), writes philosophical autobiography ("Self", 1949). Berdyaev becomes universal popularity - he is the author of 40 books, was elected an honorary Doctor of Divinity, University of Cambridge (1947). The philosophy of the main ideas first expressed in the book "The Meaning of Creativity", Berdyaev then varies and develops them. This is the idea of freedom, the idea of creativity and objectification, the idea of the individual and, finally, the idea of "meta-historical" eschatological meaning of history. In Berdyaev created a dualistic picture of reality opposed to each other, on the one hand, the spirit (God), freedom, noumenon, the subject (a person, the "I"), on the other - the empirical world, the need, the phenomenon of the object. Both worlds do not exist in isolation from each other (which, according to Berdyaev, corresponds to Platonism), and interact with each other: the spirit of freedom and break from the noumenal to the phenomenal world and act in it. Creativity and objectification Fruits of the Spirit in the world always take the form of objects, dead foods that are separate from the subject and subject to all the limitations of empiricism - the laws of space, time, causation, formal logic. This nispadenie freedom in necessity, Berdyaev called objectification - existential root of suffering, slavery, evil. But resists objectification in the world another beginning - creativity. Creating, the subject takes up the world to himself, include it in your inner life, open to the freedom and spirit, and so transforms it, free from objectification. The creative act - a breakthrough in the spirit world of objects. The fruits of his once again find themselves in the field of objectification, but he as such does not belong to this area, it is free. Creativity - way to overcome objectification, and the overcoming of the meaning and purpose of world history. But as part of the empirical spatio-temporal being overcome impossible; time itself incompatible with its past, present and future is a consequence of objectification. Free from the objectification of the world lies outside of history as a "eon" free spirit world, identified with the gospel in Berdyaev the Kingdom of God. This metahistorical eon exists eternally in some kind of "eschatological" plane of existence, which can come in contact with a local world at any time and in any place. The creative act is a touching, in which the world's history as a flash, is their end and meaning. A story from the point of view of its meaning is not continuous and discrete, it is "discontinuous, breakthrough creative process." A similar pattern eliminates all evolutionary history and teleological model, the theory of progress, as well as the doctrine of Divine Providence, which Berdyaev directly calls the "false doctrine": God reveals Himself to the world, but does not control them. The idea of personality philosophy Berdyaev - is the philosophy of the person, personalism. Personality - is not an empirical personality, and the person taken as a creative and free being, eludes objectification. Output to other people and the unity with them inherent, according to Berdyaev, personality as part of its fatal inner world "of the society-personality" ("Slavery and Freedom"). Implementation of the free internal Socially Berdyaev calls the "catholic" and contrasts it to socialization, which are all individual impersonal universal structures of collective social institutions - classes, parties, nations, churches. Hence the social and legal position of Berdyaev: "We need to argue the relative form, giving a maximum possible freedom and dignity, and the rule of law of the state" ("Essay on Eschatological Metaphysics"). As a believer, Berdyaev at the same time critical of all forms of religious materialized - dogma, church organization, historic Christianity as a defeat objectification: creative to overcome it should reveal the spiritual essence of "eschatological Christianity" as a permanent revelation of God and man. Works: Collected op. Paris, 1983-90. T. 1-4.O destiny of man. 1993.O Russian classics. 1993.Filosofiya free spirit. 1994.Filosofiya, creativity, culture and art. 1994. T. 1-2.N. Berdyaev: Pro et contra. Anthology. 1994.Tsarstvo spirit and the kingdom of Caesar. 1995.Literatura: Poltoratsky Berdyaev and Russia: Russian philosophy of history in NABerdjaeva. New York, 1967.Bulletin de l'Association Nicolas Berdiaev. Paris, c 1953.Klepinine T. Bibliographie des oeuvres de N. Berdiaev. 1978.S. Horuzhy BERDYANSK (in 1939-58 Osipenko), city (1835) in Ukraine, Zaporozhye region., A port on the Sea of Azov m. Railway station. 135 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Plants: "Azovkabel", "Yuzhgidromash", "Azovselmash", etc .; production of fiberglass, mineral oils; food processing, light industry. Pedagogical Institute. Regional studies, art museums. Mud and climatic resort. Founded in 1827. Bere Bosque, autumn pear variety of French origin. The fruits are large, with melting, very juicy, fragrant flesh. Yields of up to 250-300 kg per tree. BEACH, band interaction between land and water bodies (sea, lakes, reservoirs) or between land and waterways (river flow time). Ivory Coast (Ivory Coast), the state in Africa; cm., Côte d'Ivoire. Beregin in the East Slavic mythology, the goddess of nature, personified forest and water elements. Coastal defense forces, the means of the fleet and coastal fortifications for the defense of naval bases, ports, coasts and islands. The defense of the sea coast is a collaborative effort Army, Navy (Navy), the Air Force and Air Defense. Riverside, city (1946) in Ukraine, Zakarpattia region. Railway station. 30.3 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Furniture and Woodworking mills; food processing, light industry; majolica factory and others. Known since the 11th century. Gothic church (15 in.). COASTAL George T. (1921-1995), the astronaut. Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (1968), Lieutenant General of Aviation (1977), a veteran of World War II, twice Hero of the Soviet Union (1944, 1968), Ph.D., Distinguished Test Pilot of the USSR (1961). Flight on "Soyuz-3" (October 1968). Head of the Cosmonaut Training Centre. Gagarin in 1972-87. USSR State Prize (1981). Coast Mountains (Coast Range), in western Canada and the United States. Ok. 1700 km. Height up to 4042 m (Mt. Waddington). Coniferous forests. Glaciers, sometimes coming down to sea level. Coastal Cordillera AED chain ranges and massifs along the coast of the Pacific c., In the South. America, between 19 ° and 37 ° 30'S. w. Height up to 3200 m; south of 41 ° 31 'S. w. presented in the form of Chilean islands of the archipelago. Coastal Range (Coast Ranges), ranges in the Pacific North zone of the Cordillera. America, along the west coast of the US, from 34 ° to 48 ° 30 '. w. Height up to 2428 m (Mt. Olimpes). Coniferous forests, bushes; arrays of giant sequoias. Olympic National Park. Flood protection embankment, serve to protect the shores of ponds from the damaging effects of waves, currents, pressure water, ice, and others. Flood protection embankment are groynes, breakwaters, gabions, cross groins, dams and others. Bershad, city (1939) in Ukraine, Ternopil region. Railway station. 17.7 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Glass factory, furniture factory, food industry. Known since 1375. Berezhko Nicholas G. (1886-1956), Russian historian, Doctor of Historical Sciences. Works on the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 14-16 cc., The chronology of Russian chronicles. BIRCH, city (1940) in Belarus, Brest region., Near the railroad Art. Birch-Kartuska. 26.0 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Engine Plant; metalworking, food processing; production of building materials. Historical and Revolutionary Museum. BIRCH, genus of trees and shrubs in the family of birch. Usually allocate 120-140 (according to other sources, 65) species in temperate and cold zones of the northern hemisphere and in the mountains of the subtropics. Forest tree and decorative rocks. The greatest economic importance are silver birch, or blisters, and white birch. The wood used in furniture production, for crafts; buds and leaves as a diuretic, cholagogue. 5 species are protected. See. Also Karelian birch. Berezan, city (1981) in Ukraine, Kyiv region. Railway station. 15.2 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Cloth Factory; production of building materials. Berezan (in ancient times - Borisfen), an island in the Black m., At the entrance to the Dnieper estuary, near Ochakov. Berezan were shot at active participants in the Sevastopol uprising of 1905: Lieutenant P. Schmidt, sailors AI Gladkov, NG Antonenko, SP Chastnik. "Berezil", the name (up to 1935), Kharkov Ukrainian Drama Theatre. Ilya Berezin V. (1923-87), a chemist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1970). Major works on the kinetics of free liquid-phase processes and enzymatic catalysis. Lenin Prize (1982). Berezin Ilya Nikolayevich (1818-96), Russian orientalist (turcologist, Iranian, Mongolist). Works on history, philology, archeology of the Near and Wed. East. Berezin Michael E. (1906-50), the designer of aircraft armament in the USSR. In 1941, his heavy machine gun UB (Universal Berezin) was adopted and became one of the key aviation firearms. USSR State Prize (1941, 1946). Berezina River in Belarus, a right tributary of the Dnieper. 613 km, the basin area of 24.5 thousand. Km2. The average water flow of 145 m3 / s. Included in the Berezina water system (connects bass. Dnieper and Zap. Dvina). Navigable for 505 km. In the war of 1812 while crossing the Berezina fought 14-17 (26-29) November Napoleon's army (75-80 thousand. People) lost approx. 50 thousand. Man, most of the artillery and baggage, and ceased to exist as an organized force. Berezina in May - July 1920 in the Soviet-Polish war, and in 1941 and 1944 during World War II took place heavy fighting. Berezin, city (1968) in Belarus, Minsk., At p. Berezina. 12.9 thousand. Inhabitants (1989). Plant materials and food enterprises. Berezinsky reserve in Vitebsk and Minsk region. Belarus, on top of the bass. p. Berezina. Founded in 1925. The area of 76,201 hectares. Lakes, marshes. Pine, alder and spruce forests. Beaver, otter, elk, wild boar, and others. Since 1979 Biosphere Reserve. Birch, metasomatic rock composed of quartz, albite, sericite, pyrite. Formed by hydrothermal changes granitic rocks. Birch - a sign of the search for ore (eg., Gold). Beresitization, changing acidic igneous rock under the influence of the hydrothermal solutions in which feldspar and mica substituted formed pyrites. "BEREZKA" dance ensemble. Founded in 1948; founder and artistic director (until 1979) NS Nadezhdina. Named for the first production of Russian girl's round dance. Since 1959 the ensemble - male group; 1973 Academic. Since 1980, the artistic director Mikhail Koltsov. Birches George S. (1905-82), the Russian writer. In the novels ("Peace City", vols. 1-2, 1952-54, "Strong atom", 1959, "The presence of extraordinary", 1980) refers to the art of war and the army. The book "Red Rocket" (1943). BEREZNIKI (until 1933 Usolye-Solikamsk), city (1932) in the Russian Federation, Perm region., A port on the Kama Reservoir. (Berezniki bridged with Usolie). Railway station. 197.4 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Center for Chemical Industry ("Uralkali", "soda", "Nitrogen", a chemical plant and others.); Titanium-Magnesium Works; electrical engineering, metal-working industry. Theater. Museum. About Bereznikov deposits of sodium, potassium, magnesium salts, developed in the 17th century. Bereznyak Alexander Yakovlevich (1912-74) aircraft. Member of the creation of BI - the first Soviet aircraft with liquid rocket engine (1942). Under the leadership of Bereznyak developed a number of models of aircraft. Lenin Prize (1962), the USSR State Prize (1970). Bereznyak, settlement culture Dyakovo 3-5 centuries. near the village. Berezniaky Yaroslavl region. Houses, commercial and religious buildings, burial. Beryozovka, city (1990) in Belarus, Grodno., 7 km from the railway CT. Neman. 12.0 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Glassworks. Beryozovka, city (1962) in Ukraine, Odessa region. Railway station. 15.3 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Food enterprises. Berezovka River in Yakutia, a right tributary of the Kolyma River. 517 km, the basin area of 24.8 thousand. Km2. Rafting. The average consumption of 53.5 m3 / s. In the bass. Beryozovka approx. 2 thousand. Lakes with an area of 44.8 km2. In the beginning. 20 in. on Beryozovka in frozen soil was found dead mammoth (later taken to St. Petersburg). BIRCH (up to 1926 birch), urban village in the Russian Federation, Khanty-Mansiysk and. o., a marina on the River. Sos'va. 7.6 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). fish processing plant; near Birch - large gas fields. Founded in the 16th century., Since 1782 the county town of Tobolsk governorship. In the 18th - early. 20th centuries. place of exile. BIRCH Anatoly (b. 1942), the astronaut. Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (1982), Colonel, Hero of the Soviet Union (1982). Flight on "Soyuz T-5, -6, -7" and orbital station "Salyut-7" (May - December 1982). Berezovsky mineral water spa resort in Ukraine, west of Kharkov. Berezovsky, a town (since 1965) in the Russian Federation, Kemerovo region. Railway station (miner). 51.9 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Extraction of coal. Berezovsky, a town (since 1938) in the Russian Federation, Sverdlovsk region., A satellite city of Yekaterinburg. Railway station. (Birch). 48.3 thousand. Inhabitants (1992). Precision Alloys Plant; production of construction materials; light industry. Museum of the History zolotoplatinovoy industry in the Urals. Originated in the 18th century. as a center of gold mining. Gold mining.
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