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AFANASY (? - D. After 1568), Russian Metropolitan in 1564-66. Confessor of Ivan the Terrible and the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral. The nominal head of the Russian government with the introduction of the oprichnina. AFANASY (in the world Kondoidi Anastasius) (d. 1737), bishop of Suzdal, a Greek by birth; spravschik Slavonic translation of the Bible. AFANASY (in the world Alexei Lyubimov Artemyevitch) (1641-1702), the first Archbishop Kholmogorsky (1682), author of works against the Old Believers "Color of the Spirit" and "The Shield of Faith," as well as the interpretation of the first chapter of Genesis, "Six Days". Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 295-373), a church leader and theologian, representative of patristic, Bishop of Alexandria. In the struggle against Arianism developed a mystical doctrine of "consubstantiality" God the Father and God the Son, became a dogma on the 1st (325) and 2nd (381) Ecumenical Councils; defended the independence of the church from the imperial power. AFANASY Brest (Philippovich) (1597-1648), the martyr, the abbot of the Brest Simeon Monastery (from 1638). Opposed the introduction of the union, executed Poles. Memory in the Orthodox Church on July 20 (August 2) and 5 (18) of September. AFANASY Vysotsky, Serpukhov, Junior (d. 1395), the second abbot of the monastery of the Serpukhov Vysotsky (1387), a disciple of St. Sergius of Radonezh and Athanasius Vysotsky Elder. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19), (Radonezh Cathedral of Saints) and 12 (25) of September. AFANASY (in the world Andrew) Vysotsky, Serpukhov, Senior (d. After 1401), a disciple of St. Sergius of Radonezh, founded (1374) with him Monastery Conception of the Blessed Virgin at Serpukhov on the high bank of the river Nara (hence its name Vysotsky) and became its first abbot; in 1387 went to Constantinople, where he spent the rest of his life, translated from the Greek language and rewriting the church books sent then Vysotsky Monastery (in this way came to Russia Jerusalem statute is widespread then called "Eye of the church"). Memory in the Orthodox Church, 6 (19), (Radonezh Cathedral of Saints) and 12 (25) of September. AFANASY Melitinsky (d. 298), one of the thirty-three Christian martyrs, soldiers injured in Melitene in the persecution of Diocletian. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 7 (20) of November. AFANASY Sebaste (d. C. 320), one of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. AFANASY Uglich (d. 1609), Martyr, who died in the ruin of Uglich Poles in the Time of Troubles. Memory in the Orthodox Church on May 23 (June 5) (Cathedral of the Rostov-Yaroslavl saints). Afanasyev Alexander (b. 1938), the Russian physicist, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1984). Works on the Mossbauer spectroscopy, X-ray physics, solid state physics, nuclear physics. USSR State Prize (1976). Afanasyev Alexander (1826-71), the Russian literary critic, representative of the "mythological school" in folklore. Articles about Russian literature of the 18th century. Proceedings of the "Poetic views on the nature of the Slavs" (vols. 1-3, 1866-69), a collection of "Russian Fairy Tales" (1855-64). Afanasyev Victor G. (1922-94), the Russian philosopher, academician (1991; Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1981). In 1976-89 editor in chief of the newspaper "Pravda". In 1989-90 at work in the USSR. Major works on issues of social development, governance, philosophical questions of biology. USSR State Prize (1983). Viktor Afanasyev (b. 1948), a Russian cosmonaut, Soviet cosmonaut (1991). Hero of the Soviet Union (1991). Flight on "Soyuz TM-11" and orbital station "Mir" (December 1990 - May 1991), "Soyuz TM-18" and orbital station "Mir" (January - July 1994). Afanasyev George D. (1906-75), the Russian geologist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1953). Major works on the petrology and geochemistry of ancient rocks, radiological age of geological formations. AFANASYEV E. A. See. Klimanov EA AFANASYEV Onisimovich Peter (1874-1944), a Russian teacher. Author primers, textbooks and manuals in Russian language for primary and secondary schools. Sergey Afanasiev (b. 1918), statesman, twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1975, 1978). Since 1965, the Minister of General Machine Building USSR. In 1983-87 the Minister of Heavy and Transport Engineering of the USSR. Lenin Prize (1973), the USSR State Prize (1952). Yuri Afanasiev (b. 1934), Russian politician; historian, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor (major works on the history of Zap. Europe). Since December 1986 the rector of the Moscow Historical Archives Institute (since March 1991 the Russian State University for the Humanities). From 1990-92 co-chair of the movement "Democratic Russia". Afanasevo culture, archaeological culture Eneolithic (3rd - beg. Of the 2nd millennium. BC. E.) In the South. Siberia, named after a burial ground at Mount Afanasyevskaya in Khakassia. Remains of settlements and cemeteries. Farm: herding, hunting, farming. AFAR (self - Danakil, adalo), people in Ethiopia (670 thousand. Man, 1992), Eritrea (180 th. People), Djibouti (150 thousand. People). Afar language-SAHO. Believers - Sunni Muslims. AFAR (Danakil), tectonic depression and the desert to the east of the Ethiopian highlands, in Africa. In the central part near Lake. Assal height of 153 m below sea level. One of the hottest places on Earth (the average temperature in July and 35 ° C). Clay-saline and sandy deserts. AFAR-SAHO languages (danakilskie), Afar ethnic languages (north-eastern Ethiopia and Djibouti) and SAHO (North-eastern Ethiopia). Belong to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic languages. Afghan local south-westerly wind in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya. Notes 30-70 days per year (in the region of Termez). Carries a lot of dust. Afghanistan, Islamic State of Afghanistan, a country in South-West. Asia. 652.2 thousand. Km2. The population of 20.3 million. People (1993), St. 1/2 of the population - Afghans (Pashtuns), still lives St. 20 nationalities. The urban population of 18% (1990). Official languages - Pashto and Dari. The dominant religion - Islam. Administrative divisions: 29 provinces (wilayat) and 2 districts under the central government. Capital - Kabul. The head of state - the president. Afghanistan - a mountainous country. From the north-east to south-west extends the Hindu Kush (height in Afghanistan until 6729 m) in the north and south - the plains and plateaus. The climate is continental, dry. The average January temperature in the plains from 0 to 8 ° C, in the high places below - 20 ° C, in July, respectively, from 24 to 32 ° C and 0 to 10 ° C. Precipitation is 200-400 mm per year in the mountains to 800 mm. The main rivers - the Amu Darya, Murghab, Hari Rud, Helmand, Kabul. Predominantly desert and semi-desert vegetation. The first Afghan state formations emerged in the 16th century. In 1747 - 1818 there Durrani state. British attempts to subdue Afghanistan (Anglo-Afghan war of the 19th century.) Ended in failure, but the British have to establish its control over Afghanistan's foreign policy. In 1919 the government of Amanullah Khan declared independence of Afghanistan. UK war against Afghanistan (May - June 1919) ended with the victory of Afghanistan. Amanullah government carried out reforms aimed at eliminating archaic feudal institutions, on the development of capitalist relations. In January 1929 the feudal-clerical reaction, supported by the United Kingdom, seized power. In October 1929 dynasty came to power by Nadir Shah (rules until July 1973). Strengthen the independence of Afghanistan contributed to the Soviet-Afghan treaty of 1921, 1926, 1931. In July 1973 Afghanistan proclaimed a republic. After the coup in 1978, committed the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (established in 1965; the ideological foundation of the party was proclaimed scientific socialism) in Afghanistan turned civil war. In 1979, Afghanistan had entered Soviet troops took part in the war (until 1989) on the side of the government came to power (fell in 1992). In April 1992 the country became known as the Islamic State of Afghanistan, power was transferred to the Governing Council of jihad (Transitional Council of the Mujahideen). In December 1992, the country's president elected Rabbani, who headed the Board of Management. Afghanistan - an agrarian country. Share in the gross domestic product (1990,%): agriculture 52.6, industry 28.5. In agriculture St. 1/3 of arable land - irrigated. Cereals (mainly wheat and corn, barley, rice), technical (cotton, oilseeds, sugar beet, sugar cane) culture. Vegetable and melon, horticulture and viticulture. Livestock (1990, mln.): 13.5 sheep, in Vol. H. Karakul 4.5 (one of the first places in the world to overcome the doodle), cattle 1.6, 2.1 goats, camels and others. ; poultry. Extraction of natural gas, oil and other. Textile, chemical, food processing and others. Industry. Carpet. Production of electricity 1.128 billion. KW • h (1990). The length of the road (1988) 19.2 t. Km, 10 km of railways. Exports of natural gas, dried fruit, carpets, astrakhan fur and others. The main foreign trade partners: CIS countries, Japan, Pakistan, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, India and others. Currency - afghani. Afghan, the same as Pashto. Afghans (self - Pashtun, Pathan), the people, the general population of Afghanistan. (St. 10 million. Man, 1992). St. 19 million. People (mostly nomads and semi-nomads) live in the north-west Pakistan. Preserved tribal associations (Afridi, Wazir, Ghilzais, Durrani et al.). Pashto language. Believers mostly Sunni Muslims. Aphelion (apo ... and Greek. Helios - Sun), the most distant point from the Sun's orbit orbiting a celestial body. The distance of the Earth from the Sun at aphelion equal to 152 million. Km. SCAM (from the French. Affaire - business), fraud, questionable deal. Afilloforovye, order basidiomycetes open Hymenophore. Ok. 4 th. Species; mainly saprotrophs. Pathogens rotten wood (some trutovikovye), Dry rot. Few afilloforovye edible (chanterelles, and some ezhoviki rogatiki). Athens (Pallas Athena), in Greek mythology, the goddess of war and victory, as well as the wisdom, knowledge, arts and crafts. Daughter of Zeus, born fully armed (with helmet and armor) out of his head. Patroness of Athens. It corresponds to the Roman Minerva. Among the most famous images of Athens - a sculptural group "Athena and Marsyas" (Myron), colossal statues "Athena Promachos" and "Athena Parthenos" on the Athenian Acropolis (Phidias, not preserved) - all 5. BC. e. Athena Parthenos (Greek. Virgo), the Greek hrisoelefantinskaya statue of ancient Greek sculptor Phidias work standing in the Parthenon (consecrated in 438 BC. E.). Athenagoras (2 in.), Christian apologist, author of "The petitions" in defense of Christianity, facing the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and the book "On each Sunday of the Dead". Athenagoras (1886-1972), the patriarch of Constantinople (1948), to promote reconciliation of the Christian churches of the East and the West. At the initiative of Athenagoras in 1964, he met with Pope Paul VI in Jerusalem (the first meeting between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in 1439), after which they were abolished mutual anathema, existing since 1054). Afinogenov Alexander (1904-41), Russian playwright. In the play "Freak" (1929), "Fear" (1931), "Masha" (1941) - socio-philosophical and moral problems. Was killed in a raid by fascist German aviation Moscow. Athenodorus of Byzantium Rhodes (1 in. BC. E.), The ancient Greek sculptor. See. Agesander of Rhodes Rhodes. Athenian education, system of education of boys and young men (except slaves), established in Other. Athens in 7-5 centuries. BC. e. From 7 to 16 years - training in grammar school, school Citharist and palaestra. Children from the wealthiest families continued until the age of 18 classes at the gymnasium. Educating young people 18-20 years was completed in Ephebos. Musicheskoe education combined with gymnastic. Physical labor is excluded. Athens News Agency, the State Information Service of Greece. Founded in 1896, Athens. ATHENS, capital of Greece, adm. c. nome Attica. 748 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Together with the port of Piraeus and Athens suburbs form Greater Athens, with a population of St. 3 million. Man. An important transport hub. Elinikon International Airport. Greater Athens give St. 2/3 obschegrecheskih industrial products. Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear, food, chemical, oil refining, metallurgy, machine building (in Vol. H. Shipbuilding) industry. Metropolitan. Center of international tourism. The complex of the Acropolis, Temple of Olympian Zeus (175-132 BC. E.), Medieval churches of the Byzantine era. The first settlement on the site of modern Athens in the 16-13 centuries. BC. e. In Dr. Greece Athens - a major center, the city-state in Attica (see. Ancient Athens). In 146 BC. e. - 395 n. e. Athens under the rule of Rome, 395-1204 - Byzantium. In 1204-1458 the capital of the Duchy of Athens. In 1458 captured by Turkey. Since 1834 the capital of independent Greece. Athens - University, Academy of Sciences, National Archaeological Museum, the Acropolis, the Agora Museum, the Byzantine Museum, the National Gallery, etc .; National Library. Games I Olympiad (1896). Ancient Athens, the city-state (polis) in Attica, who played a leading role in the economic, political and cultural life of Dr. Greece; a classic example of the slave-owning democracy flourished under Pericles (2nd floor. 5 in. BC. e.). Aphyric STRUCTURE, fine-grained structure of effusive rocks do not contain phenocrysts. Aflatoxins, toxic substances (coumarin derivatives), produced by fungi, mainly Aspergillus. Have a toxic effect on the liver of mammals, birds, fish; potential carcinogens. Athos (Ayon Oros, the Holy Mountain), the peninsula, the eastern end of the peninsula of Halkidiki in north-eastern Greece, the center of Orthodox monasticism. 20 monasteries, in Vol. H. Kareysky Greek (residence of the monastic control Athos - Protaton), Laurel St. Athanasius (10 in.), Serbian - Hilandar (12 in.), Bulgarian - Zograph (11-13 cc.), Georgian - Iver (10 in.), Russian monastery of St. Panteleimon (1169). The largest collection of manuscripts and monuments of religious art. Athos is under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople to the right authorities. Afonina Vasily Ye (b. 1939), the Russian writer. In novels and stories drawn to rustic theme. Books: "In the end" (1975), "The Last Fall" (1979), "Cranberry berry" (1979), "The game of rounders" (1981), "Evening" (1984), "Pure Ples" (1986) et al. autobiographical novel "Biography" (1990). Athos (from a - a negative prefix and Greek. Phone - sound, voice), lack of voice in the preservation whisper speech; observed in diseases of the larynx, in hysteria and others. Battle of Athos, 19.6 (1.7) .1807, during the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-12, in the peninsula of Athos (Ayon Oros) in the Aegean m. The Russian squadron of Vice-Admiral DN . Senyavin defeated the Turkish fleet. PHRASE (Gr. Aphorismos), saying that expresses a concise generalized, complete thought ("Serve be glad fawn sickening" Griboyedov). Afroasiatic languages (Afro-Asiatic, African and Asian), macrofamily languages spoken in the North. Africa, Zap. Asia and about. Malta. Divided into 5 (or 6) main branches: Semitic, Egyptian, Libyan Berber, Chad, Cushitic and omotskuyu (sometimes seen as a branch of Cushitic). Afrasiab settlement - the ruins of Samarkand 6. BC. e. - 13 in. n. e. (Uzbekistan). Fortifications, mosques, and other remains of frescoes. AFRIGIDSKAYA culture, archeology - early feudal culture of Khorezm (4-8 cc.), Named after the dynasty Afrighids; vestiges of feudal estates, castles. Africa, the continent's second largest after Eurasia. 29.2 million. Km2 (the islands of 30.3 million. Km2). To the west by the Atlantic c., From the north - the Mediterranean m., From the north-east - Red m., In the east - Indian approx. Banks slashed weak; the largest bay - Guinea, Somalia Peninsula. Geologically, the predominantly Precambrian crystalline platform base, overlain by younger sedimentary rocks. Folded mountains are located just to the north-west (Atlas) and the south (Cape Mountains). The average height above sea level of 750 m. The terrain is dominated by high stepped plains, plateaus and highlands; in inland areas - the vast tectonic depressions (Kalahari in South. Africa, the Congo in Central Africa, and others.). From the Red m., And to the river. Zambezi Africa shattered the world's greatest system of fault valleys (see. The East African Rift System), partially occupied by lakes (Tanganyika, Nyasa et al.). Along the edges of the depressions volcanoes Kilimanjaro (5895 m, the highest point in Africa), Kenya and others. Mineral resources of global significance: diamonds (South. And Rec. Africa), gold, uranium (South. Africa), iron ore, aluminum (Rec. Africa ), copper, cobalt, beryllium, lithium (mainly in the South. Africa), phosphates, petroleum, natural gas (North. and West. Africa). In Africa, north and south of the equatorial climate zone followed subekvatorialnoho, tropical and subtropical climates. Average temperatures summer approx. 25-30 ° C. Winter also prevail high positive temperature (10-25 ° C), but in the mountains are temperature below 0 ° C; in the Atlas Mountains snow falls each year. The greatest amount of precipitation in the equatorial zone (average 1500-2000 mm per year), on the coast of Guinea hall. (up to 3000-4000 mm). To the north and south of the equator decrease rainfall (100 mm or less in deserts). The main flow is directed into the Atlantic approx .: pp. Nile (the longest in Africa), the Congo (Zaire), Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Orange, etc .; largest river basin Indian ok. - Zambezi. Ok. 1/3 Africa - the area of internal drainage mostly ephemeral streams. The largest lakes - Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa (Malawi). The main types of vegetation - savannah and desert (the largest - Sahara), occupying approx. 80% of the area of Africa. Humid equatorial evergreen forests typical for equatorial and coastal subequatorial zones. To the north or south of them - the sparse tropical forests, passing in the savannah and then desert savannah. In tropical Africa (mainly in the reserves) - elephants, rhinos, hippos, zebras, antelopes, etc .; lions, cheetahs, leopards and other large predators. Numerous monkeys, small carnivores, rodents; in dry areas of the abundance of reptiles. Many birds, in Vol. H. Ostriches, ibises, flamingos. Cause damage to farming termites, locusts, the tsetse fly. In Africa, located States: Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Djibouti, the majority of Egypt, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Kenya Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Mauritania, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia Uganda, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, South Africa and West area. Sugar, Ceuta and Melilla. On the islands belonging to Africa - State: Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles and Reunion, Saint Helena Island. Africa's population is 670 million. People (1993) .AFRIKAIstoriya issledovaniyaNachalny stage (2nd thousand. BC. E. - 6 in.) The study of Africa dates back to antiquity. The ancient Egyptians mastered the northern part of the continent, moving along the coast from the mouth of the Nile to the Gulf of Sidra, penetrated into the Arabian, Libyan and Nubian desert. About 6 in. BC. e. Phoenicians made long sea voyages around Africa. B 6. BC. e. Hanno the Carthaginian explorer undertook swimming along the west coast of the continent. According to records at the plate, he left in one of the temples of Carthage, he reached the inner part of the Gulf of Guinea, where Europeans have penetrated nearly two thousand years. During the period of Roman rule and later fishing boats reached the Canary Islands, the Roman travelers to penetrate deep into the Libyan desert (LK Balbus, S. Flaccus). In 525 the Byzantine merchant, explorer and geographer Cosmas Indicopleustes went up the Nile, crossed the Red Sea and traveled to the East African coast. He left a 12-volume work is the only one of its time source of information about the Nile River and adjacent territories. The second stage - Arab hikes (7-14 cc.) After the conquest of North Africa (7 in.) Arabs many times crossed the Libyan desert and the Sahara desert, began to study the Senegal River and the Niger, Lake Chad. One of the earliest reports of geographic Ibn Khordadbeh to 9. contains information on Egypt and trade routes in the country. In the early 12th century. Idrisi showed North Africa on the world map, which by far exceeded the accuracy of the then existing in Europe map. Ibn Battuta in 1325-49, coming from Tangier, across the North and East Africa, visited Egypt. Later (1352-53), he was the Western Sahara, visited the city of Timbuktu on the Niger River, and then returned back through the Central Sahara. Left their essay contains valuable information about the nature of the countries he visited and customs of their people. The third stage - Travel 15-17 centuries. In 1417-22 the Chinese admiral Zheng He in one of his many trips, passing the Red Sea, Somalia and rounded the peninsula, moving along the east coast, reached the island of Zanzibar. In the 15-16 centuries. study of Africa was associated with the search for the Portuguese sea route to India. In 1441 N. Tristao reached Cape Cap Blanc. D. Dias in the 1445-46 biennium. rounded the extreme western point of Africa, which he called the Green Cape. In 1471 Fernando According discovered an island named after him. In 1488 B. Dias opened the extreme southern point of Africa, calling it the Cape of Storms (later renamed the Cape of Good Hope); 1500 not far from this cape during a storm B. Dias died. On the basis of reports B. Dias route to India, developed the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama. In 1497-98 he was heading to India from Lisbon, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and passed along the east coast to 3 ° 20 'S. w. (Malindi). In 1487-92 SP Covilha made the trip from Lisbon across the Mediterranean Sea to the mouth of the Nile, and then walked along the southwest coast of the Red Sea to the city of Suakin. By the end of the 16th century. were established contours of the continent. In the 17th century. in the interior of Africa, south of the equator, Portuguese explorers were discovered Lake Tana (1613) and Nyasa (1616) investigated the origins of the Blue Nile and the lower reaches of the Congo River. In the west of the continent French expedition A. Brue in the 17th century. explore the river Senegal, English - the river Gambia. The fourth stage - Expedition 18-20 centuries. Since the late 18th century. the desire to master new rich sources of natural resources stimulated the study of African English, French and German travelers. Expeditions focus in the interior of the continent. British set up a special "Association to promote the opening of the inner parts of Africa", which organized a number of important expeditions. M. Park in 1795-97 and 1805-06 studied the upper reaches of the Niger River, W. Audni, D. and H. Denham, Clapperton in 1822-23 crossed the Sahara from north to south (from Tripoli to Lake Chad) and proved that the river Niger is not originated from this lake. Go through the Sahara in 1827-28 made a French traveler R. Kaye. In 1830 a British expedition explored the lower reaches of the Niger River and the mouth (R. Lander and Lander AD) .In the late 18th - early 19th century. begins the study of South Africa, which was the first researcher English traveler George. Barrow. In 1835, E. Smith explored the Limpopo River, in 1868 S. Ernskayn passed through its tributary Olifants.Geograficheskoe and exploration of the Blue Nile Basin conducted in 1847-48 Russian expedition EP Kovalevsky, the first of Russian travelers, who described Abyssinia. In the mid-19th century. in the basin of the White Nile worked French (Lena A. de Bellefond, Côte-d'Or and D'Arnot) and the German expedition (F. Vernet). The highest point of Mount Kilimanjaro mainland opened in 1848-49 German missionaries Krapf and I. I. Rebman. British expedition J. Speke and Burton RF in 1856-59 discovered Lake Tanganyika. In 1858, Lake Victoria J. opened. Speke and later (1860-63) Set in conjunction with George. Grant that from this lake originates River Nile. Great contribution to the study of Africa introduced the Scottish explorer D. Livingstone, in 1849 discovered Lake Ngami, the first of Europeans crossed South Africa from west to east (1853-56), simultaneously surveyed a significant part of the Zambezi River Basin and opening the world's largest Victoria Falls (1855 ). In 1867-71 he studied the southern and western shores of Lake Tanganyika, Lake Bangweulu opened. In Europe, the expedition Livingstone believed missing and went looking for him journalist GM Stanley, who met with Livingstone in 1871 on Lake Tanganyika. Then they examined along the northern part of the lake and found that it is not connected with the Nile. Another expedition in search of Livingstone in 1873 led the English sailor and explorer VL Cameron. However, his help was late, t. To. By the time Livingstone died of a fever. Cameron went on tour in 1874 and reached Lake Tanganyika and opened it Photo - River Lukuga River. Studies conducted Sahara German travelers G. Rohlfs, in 1865-67 the first Europeans crossed Africa from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea (Tripoli) to the Gulf of Guinea (Lagos), and G. Nachtigal, carried out in 1869-74 hike in the Lake Chad area. He was the first European to reach the highlands WADA and collected extensive data on the nature and the population of the inner regions of Central Africa. Later he published a three-volume work "Sahara and Sudan" (1879-89). Russian biologist, physician and traveler AV Eliseev in 1881, while still a student, he went to Egypt and traveled up the Nile to Siuta, and then two months wandered through Arabia. Three years later, he again visited Africa, from Tripoli, he moved to Algeria, passed the Sahara, has visited Morocco; He wrote many geographical works, in Vol. h. and about Africa. Russian traveler VV Junker in 1876-78 traveled extensively in Central Africa, during which he held the geographic and ethnographic observations, explained the origins of the hydrography of the river White Nile. In the next expedition in 1879-86 he explored the watershed of the rivers Nile and the Congo; summarized the results of his observations in his book "Travels in Africa (1877-78 and 1879-86)" (1949). In 1896-1900 three visits to Ethiopia Russian traveler AK Bulatovic held shooting slaboizuchennyh south-western and western regions of the country, the first Europeans crossed the mountainous region of Kaffa. The territory of modern Angola and Mozambique studied Portuguese A. Serpa Pinto (1877-79), who discovered the sources of rivers Cunene and Kubango, E. Brito Capelo and R. Ivensh (1877-79), crossed the continent from west to east. As a result of geographical research by the end of the 19th century. were studied four great African rivers: the Nile, Niger, Congo and Zambezi. In the early 20th century. revealed vast natural resources of the African continent. References: Zabrodskaya MP Russian travelers to Africa. M., 1955.Magidovich IP Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. M., 1967. Gornung MB, Lipets YG, Olejnikov I. History of discovery and research in Africa. M., 1973.Molyavko GI, VP Franchuk, Kulichenko VG Geologists. Geographers. Kiev, 1985. EG Mirlin Afrikaans (Taal), the language of Afrikaners (Boers), refers to the Indo-European family of languages (German group). One of the two official languages of South Africa. Arose in the process of integration and mixing the Dutch dialects with German and English, as well as some local languages. Writing on the basis of the Latin alphabet. Petriysky Africana (African) (d. C. 250), the Christian martyr soldier injured in the persecution of Emperor Decius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of April. Afrikaners (Boers), the people of South Africa (3 million. People). They also live in Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, UK, USA and others. The total number of communication. 3 million. People (1992). Afrikaners - the descendants of Dutch, French and German colonists. Afrikaans. By religion mainly Protestant (Reformed). African Studies, a complex of scientific disciplines that study the history, economics, social and political issues, law, development of social thought, ethnography, language, literature and art of the peoples of Africa. African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), the political party of Guinea-Bissau. Founded in 1956. She headed the liberation struggle against the Portuguese colonialists. General Secretary of the Central Committee - JB Vieira (1981). African platform, Precambrian platform, which occupies most of Africa (excluding the Atlas Mountains and the Cape). Foundation appears on the surface within the Nubian-Arabian, Ahaggarskogo and other boards, which are located between syncline: Taoudenni, Chad, Congo, Carr et al. Oriental and partly southern outskirts of the African platform underwent epi-platformal orogeny to form the eastern mountain belt. Africa, complicated system of rifts - grabens employed lakes and river valleys. AFRICAN GAMES, the largest multi-sport event in Africa. Conducted since 1965 by the Supreme Council of the African sports (QSAR, founded in 1965, instead of the Standing Committee of the African sports); In 1989 approx. 50 countries. The African Development Bank (AfDB, African Development Bank), regional interstate bank lending programs for economic and social development of African countries. Founded in 1963, the operation since 1967. The Board in Abidjan. At the beginning of 1988 the members of the AfDB were 50 African and non-African countries 26 (in Vol. H. Of Yugoslavia and China). The authorized capital at stake. 1980s. 6.5 billion. Dollars. United States, 2/3 of capital belongs to African countries. Has two branches (the African Development Fund and the Foundation of Nigeria). More than half of loans to agriculture and infrastructure. The African National Congress (ANC), the oldest political organization of the African population in South Africa. Founded in 1912, in 1960-90 illegal. Declared the goal of the elimination of apartheid, the struggle for democratic transformation of society. ANC president - Mandela (1990). Horn of Africa, find the name of the eastern. Africa - Somalia Peninsula, jutting in the form of horns in the Indian approx. Located on the Horn of Africa Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia part. African Antarctic Basin, Oceanic basin in the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, near the coast of Antarctica. Extended along 60 ° S. w. at 6200 km. Depth up to 6787 m. Crabgrass, annual herb of the family of grasses. Grain and forage crops in arid regions of Africa, Asia, South. Europe and America. AFRIKANTROP (from Africa and Greek. Anthropos - people), a fossil of a Neanderthal man type (see. Neanderthals). Fragments of skulls and stone tools afrikantropov found in 1935 and 1938 at Lake. Eyasi in Tanzania. AFRICAN INSTITUTE RAS (IAFRAN), established in 1959 in Moscow. Examines the economic, socio-political, international, historical, cultural and ethnographic problems of development in Africa. AFRO (Afro) (pres. Bozeldella African name) (1912-76) was an Italian painter, a representative of lyrical abstraction. African-Americans, ethnic and racial group in the United States, part of the Americans. African Americans - descendants of African slaves brought to North. America in the 17th - 19th centuries. 30 million. People (1992). Aphrodite, in Greek mythology, the goddess of love and beauty, emerged from the sea foam. It corresponds to the Roman Venus. Famous Greek statue of Aphrodite - "Aphrodite of Cnidus" (c. 350 BC. E., Praxiteles, known in Roman copies) and the "Aphrodite of Milos" (2 in. BC. E., The original in the Louvre, Paris). Aphrodite of Cnidus. See Art. Aphrodite. Afrosimov Vadim V. (b. 1930), the Russian experimental physicist, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1987). Works in the field of experimental atomic physics and plasma physics. Lenin Prize (1972), the USSR State Prize (1981). AFL - CIO, see. American Federation of Labor - Congress of Industrial Organizations. Aftalion (Aftalion) Albert (1874-1956), French economist. Works on problems of the capitalist cycle. The root cause of social crises seen in the psychological and technical and economic factors. "Aftonbladet" ("Aftonbladet"), the Swedish daily newspaper, from 1830, Stockholm. Aphthae (Gr. Aphthai), painful superficial sores on the oral mucosa; develop as an independent disease (mainly in children), or as a complication. AFFANDI (Affandi) Kusuma (b. 1910), Indonesian painter and graphic artist. Works of 40-50-ies. of romantic emotion, love for ordinary workers ("Blind father to the boy"). Affect (from Lat. Affestus - emotion, passion), a violent short-term emotion (eg., Anger, horror) that occurs usually in response to a strong stimulus. The legal aspects of the state of affect cm. Art. Emotion. Afferent (from Lat. Afferens - bearing) bearing to the body or into it (eg., Afferent artery); transmitting impulses from the working bodies (glands, muscles) to the nerve center (afferent or centripetal nerve fibers). Avg. Efferent. Affixes (from Lat. Affixus - attached), part of the word, is contrasted with the root and expresses grammatical or derivational value. By position relative to the root affixes are divided into prefixes, suffixes, infixes and some others. Refining (fr. Affinage, from affiner - cleaned), obtaining precious metals of high purity. Kind of refining metals. Affine geometry (from Lat. Affinis - related), branch of geometry that studies the properties of figures that are preserved under any affine transformation. Affine transformation, geometric transformation of the plane or space, which can be obtained by combining motion, specular reflections and dilation in the directions of the coordinate axes. Affleck (Affleck), Raymond (p .1922), Canadian architect. Designing large urban buildings, interior spaces which are designed as covered streets in the style of 19th century passages (Stephen Leacock Building, 1961-65; area Bonaventure in Montreal, 1964-67). AFFONY Persian (d. 341-345), the Christian martyr, a former executioner, who suffered in the persecution of king Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox Church 2 (15) of November. Affricates (from Lat. Affrico - grind), a consonant, consisting of an explosive (occlusive) and fricative (slit) elements (eg., Russian "h", "c"). AH (al., Eg. Blissful enlightenment) in Egyptian mythology, one of the shower-the essence of man, his afterlife incarnation. First mentioned in the "Pyramid Texts" as hypostasis of the deceased pharaoh. Depicted as a crested ibis. Ahaggar (Hoggar) Plateau in Central Sahara (Algeria). Stepped mountain ranges (the average height of 800 m), the basalt plateau (average height of 2000 m) and separate volcanic cones (g Tahat, 3003 m). Mountain desert. Nomadic pastoralism, agriculture in the oases. Achaicus (1 in.), Apostle of the 70, a companion of the Apostle Paul (1 Corinthians 16: 17-18). Memory in the Orthodox Church, 4 (17) of January. Achalasia of the esophagus, see. Cardiospasm. "Akhalgori GOLD", the remains of a rich burial 5. BC. e. with gold and silver products (vessels, ornaments and so on.); found in 1908 at p. Akhalgori (South. Ossetia). Akhalkalaki city in Georgia, p. Paravani, 15.8 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Metalworking, food, building materials industry. Museum. Known since 1064. Akhal-Teke horses, horse, bred in the ancient territory of Turkmenistan. Animals are large, with a sleek physique and plastic movement, sports, endurance. Bred in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation. Akhal-Teke expedition trips Russian troops with the aim of mastering the Akhal-Teke oasis (Turkmenistan). 1st Akhal-Teke expedition (1879) ended without result. In the 2nd Akhal-Teke expedition (1880-1881) Russian troops of General MD Skobelev 12/01/1881 stormed the strengthening of the Turkomans in Geok-Tepe (45 km north-west of Ashgabat). Akhaltsikhe city in Georgia. Railway station. 24.6 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Food industry. Theater. Local history and historical museums. Balneological resort. Known since the 12th century. Akhal in Vedic mythology wife of the sage Gautama. Seduced by Indra, she turned to stone. Akhangaran, city (1966) in Uzbekistan, Tashkent region. Railway station. 31.1 thousand. Inhabitants (1989). Cement plant, production slate, plastic products. Akhan Seri (pres. Ahan name Koramsin) (1843-1913), Kazakh bard and composer. Lyric poem "Syrymbet", "Kulager" and others. Achatinidae, family terrestrial gastropods. Ok. 100 species in Africa. Achatina fulica, the largest of the terrestrial molluscs (shell height of 20 cm, weighs up to 0.5 kg), the meat is edible; with con. 18 in. Russell in tropical and subtropical regions; damage crops, especially sugar cane. Ahvaz, a city in south-western Iran, adm. c. ostan Khuzestan. 580 thousand. Inhabitants (1986). Oil Center area. Textiles, steel mill; manufacture of jewelry. University. Ahvaz, a large oil field in Iran. Openly and developed since 1958. The deposit reservoir with a gas cap, at the depth of 1,5-3,1 km. Initial oil reserves 1,215,000,000. M of gas 311 billion. M3. Akhvakh see. Art. Dagestan languages.
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