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Avicenna, see. Ibn Sina. AVKSELY Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs damaged in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. Auxentius of Bithynia (d. C. 470), the Christian hermits, had worked in Bithynia on the mountain near Chalcedon Oksiya. Originally from Persia, was a courtier at the court of Emperor Theodosius the Younger. Became a monk, served as deacon, then presbyter of Constantinople. Participated in the 4th Ecumenical Council. Memory in the Orthodox and the Catholic Church on February 14. Avksentiev Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs damaged in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. Avksentiev Pertsovsky, Vologda (d. 1521), the monk, founded in 1499 (together with the Holy Onuphrii) Pepper deserts in the town of Gryazovets near Vologda. Memory in the Orthodox Church 12 (25) of June. Avksentiev Sebaste, Arabian (d. Early. 4 in.), The martyr, presbyter in Aravrake, one of the five martyrs of Sebaste in Armenia suffered in the persecution of Diocletian. Memory in the Orthodox Church 13 (26) of December. Avksentiev Solovetsky Kashkarensky (17 in.), Reverend. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 9 (22) August (the Cathedral of the Solovetsky saints). Avksentiev Chalcedon (d. C. 816), the Christian confessor, the monk, associate bishop Cosmas, who suffered with him at Chalcedon in iconoclastic persecution under the emperor Leo the Armenian. Memory in the Orthodox Church on April 18 (May 1). Avksentiev Nikolai Dmitrievich (1878-1943), one of the leaders of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. In 1917 the chairman of the All-Russian Soviet of Peasants' Deputies and the Pre-Parliament, Minister of Internal Affairs of the Provisional Government. Participant in the struggle against the Soviet government during the Civil War. Then in exile. AVKSILY Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs damaged in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. Aulacogens (from the Greek. Aulax - furrow and genes - giving birth), intraplatform linear movable area in the form of a deep narrow trough, bounded by faults; usually a combination of deflection - graben and lifting - horst. Aulos (Gr. Aulos), ancient Greek musical instrument, 2-barrel type of oboe. Was distributed in Dr. Rome and the Mediterranean countries. AVM, see. The analog computer. AVOGADRO (Avogadro) Amedeo (1776-1856), Italian physicist and chemist. In 1811 put forward a hypothesis molecular structure of matter, set one of the gas laws named after him. AVOGADRO laws, equal volumes of ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules; opened in 1811. A. Avogadro AVOGADRO constant (denoted by NA), the number of molecules or atoms in 1 mole of substance, NA = 6,022CH1023 mol-1; named in honor of Avogadro. Avocado, woody plant genus of Perseus, fruit crops. Homeland - Center. and South. America, which has long been cultivated (USA, Brazil, Argentina). Is also grown in Australia, Cuba, et al., 1904 - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Evergreen tree up to 20 m, durable, fruits with 4-5 years. The fruits (150-200 pieces per plant) with an oily flesh, the taste is reminiscent of walnut, very nutritious, contain almost no carbohydrates. ABRAHAM (Abram), the ancestor of the Jews in the Bible, the father of Isaac. At the command of Yahweh Abraham was to sacrifice his son, but at the time of sacrifice was stopped by an angel. Abraham (in the world Athanasius) (d. 1672), Old Believer writer, a monk, a disciple of Avvakum. Made a compilation "Hristianoopasny shield of faith against the heretical militia", which serves to justify the differences between the Old Believers and nikonianami. Abraham Arvilsky (d. 344 or 347), the martyr bishop Arvilsky (Arbelsky) in Persia, the victim in the persecution of Shapur II. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 4 (17) of February in the Catholic 4 and 8 February. Abraham of Bulgaria, Vladimir (d. 1229), the Christian martyr, a miracle worker. Hailing from the Volga-Kama Bulgaria; converting to Christianity from Islam, was tortured fellow citizens of his native city. Memory in the Orthodox Church 1 (14) of April. Abraham of Galich, Chuhlomskoy, Gorodetsky (d. 1375), the abbot, a disciple of St. Sergius of Radonezh, educator Chud. 4 founded the monastery found (1350) the miraculous icon of the Mother of God (Galich-Chuhlomskaya "Tenderness"). Memory in the Orthodox Church on July 20 (August 2). Abraham Recluse, Hidansky (d. C. 360), the Christian monk, ascetic, more than 50 years had worked in the Syrian desert. Memory in the Orthodox Church on October 29 (November 11), in the Catholic March 16. Abraham Karriysky (d. 450), the Christian ascetic, Bishop Karriysky (Mesopotamia). Memory in the Orthodox Church 14 (27) of February. Abraham (in schema Anthony) Kensuke, Kozheezersky (d. 1634), the abbot of the monastery Kozheezerskoy, a disciple of St. Serapion Kozheezerskogo. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 7 (20) of June. Abraham Mirozhsky (12 in.), The first abbot of the Pskov Monastery Spaso-Mirozhsky, miracle worker. Memory in the Orthodox Church on September 24 (October 7). Abraham Paleostrovsky (15 in.), The abbot of the monastery Paleostrovsky, a disciple of St. Cornelius Paleostrovsky. Memory in the Orthodox Church on August 21 (September 3). Abraham PALITSYNA see. Palitsyn A. Abraham Pechenga, Vologda (d. After 1492), the monk, founded (along with the Reverend copra) Spassky deserts Gryazovetskaya have. near Vologda on the river. Pechenga. Memory in the Orthodox Church, 4 (17) of February. Abraham Caves (12-13 cc.), The name of each of the three ascetics, buried in the Nearer (Anthony's) and distant (Theodosiev) Caves of Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Memory in the Orthodox Church on September 28 (October 11) and in the 2nd Sunday of Lent (the Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Fathers). Abraham (in the world Averky) Rostov (11 in.?), The monk, miracle worker, founder and Archimandrite Epiphany Monastery in Rostov-Yaroslavl. Memory in the Orthodox Church on October 29 (November 11). Abraham of Smolensk (d. Before 1224), the monk, miracle worker, preacher, painter; first Abbot in honor of the Regulations of the Robe of the Virgin (later - the Saviour Monastery Avraamiev). Widespread in Russia received the "Life of Saint Abraham," written by his disciple Ephraim. Memory in the Orthodox Church on August 21 (September 3). Abraham Spassky (Koryazhemsky) (d. In the beginning. 17 in.), The abbot. Memory in the Orthodox Church in the 2nd Sunday after Pentecost (All Russian Saints). Abraham Yaroslavsky (Transfiguration), (d. After 1219), the abbot. Memory in the Orthodox Church on September 23 (October 6). Arseny M. Abraham (1886 - 1944), the Russian music theorist, folklorist and composer. In 1917 - 18 Commissioner RSFSR People's Commissariat of Art, one of the organizers Proletcult. Sought to give the revolutionary design of the grand celebrations, in Vol. H. With the help of factory whistles ("Symphony of rings", 1922). Abraham (Eng. Over all - all upstairs), work on the ship performed simultaneously to all or nearly all personnel caused by special signals and commands "all hands on deck." Abram Ivan Ivanovich (1915-85), Russian actor, People's Artist of the USSR (1976). In 1936-37 and since 1945 in the Komi Drama Theatre (Syktyvkar), in 1961-82 the chief director. Abram Mikhail Petrovich (1681-1752), the first director of the St. Petersburg typography in 1711-27, the clerk of the Armory. Author of many reform projects: censorship, paper money, create grain stocks and others. In 1732 he was tonsured a monk; was in exile, imprisonment. Abraham, the genus of herbs figwort family. Approx. 20 species in the temperate and cold zones and in the mountains of the tropics. Abraham drug is toxic; is used as a laxative, emetic and diuretic. AVRANEK Ulrich I. (1853-1937), choirmaster and conductor, People's Artist of Russia (1932), Hero of Labor (1934). Czech in origin. Since 1874 in Russia. From 1882 conductor and chorus master of the Bolshoi Theatre. Aurelian (Aurelianus) (214 or 215-275), Roman emperor from 270 to reunite with the empire of Palmyra in 272/273, Gaul in 273, ousted from Greece and Italy Alemanni. Aurelius Victor (Aurelius Victor) Sextus, the Roman historian 4. Author of the book "The Caesars", which are short biographies of Roman emperors from Augustus to Constance (30 BC. E. - 360 BC. E.). Aurelius (Aurelius) Mark (121-180), Roman Emperor from 161 of the Antonine dynasty. Relied on the senatorial class. Restored Roman protectorate over Armenia and Mesopotamia captured in the war with the Parthians 162-166; in the 166-180 led t. n. Marcomannic Wars. Representative of late Stoicism (philosophical essay "Reflections"). * * * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) (26 April 121, Rome - 17 March 180, Sirmium, Lower Pannonia), Roman emperor, a representative of late Stoicism, author of philosophical "Reflections ". Belonged to the noble Spanish family, the son of praetor Annius Verus. As a child, according to the will of Hadrian, was adopted by the future emperor Antoninus Pius. Received an excellent education, specifically studied law. 7 March 161, together with Lucius Verom also adopted Antoninus Pius, was proclaimed emperor. At the time of his reign came flooding of the Tiber, the revolt of the British and the Germans, the Romans successful war with Armenia and Parthia, a long war with the Marcomanni. Most of his life the emperor spent in military campaigns in an attempt to repel the barbarians closely Roman border. At the same time he took care of the internal improvement of the empire, focusing on the law and legal proceedings. Personally participated in the meetings of the Senate, in the proceedings, introduced as a punishment for false accusation civil disgrace. Collection rescripts Marcus Aurelius called "Semestria" had authority lawyers future generations. Died of the plague during the war with markomannami.Mark Aurelius was a man of moral and humble. From his youth he was abstemious lifestyle, wore modest Greek cloak, slept on the ground, avoiding entertainment. Patiently tried to transfer all the vicissitudes sent him my life, "not noticing" mediocrity co-ruler Lucius Verus, debauchery of his wife Faustina the Younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius, misunderstanding surrounding people, evil inclinations of his son Commodus, which is surrounded by the best educators and teachers (he later became one emperors of the most violent in the history of Rome). "Reflections" ("to himself"), written by Marcus Aurelius in Greek and found after his death in the stowed tent (first published 12 books in 1558 with a parallel Latin translation), in brief, sometimes aphoristic utterances formulate stoic views of this philosopher on the throne: "The time of life - a moment, her essence - the eternal flow, feeling vaguely, the structure of the whole body is perishable, fragile soul, mysterious fate of the glory - unreliable. Everything related to the body like a stream, referring to the soul - a dream and smoke. life - fighting and wandering in a foreign land. But that can lead to the path? Nothing but philosophy. philosophize same - hence protect inner genius of vilification and flaws, to ensure that he was above pleasure and suffering .... "In the following centuries the ancient world Marcus Aurelius recognized as one of the best emperors of Rome. A great number of portraits of Marcus Aurelius, depicting him at different ages. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol in Rome (in the Middle Ages was considered a monument Constantine the Great) - the most famous monument of art it vremeni.Sochineniya: Reflections. SPb., 1993.Literatura: Renan E. Marcus Aurelius and the end of the ancient world. M., 1991.Ely Capitolina. Biography of Marcus Antoninus Philosopher // Masters of Rome. M., S. Marcus Aurelius 1992.Kotlyarevsky // Roman Stoics. M., 1994.V. E. Suslenko Aurelius Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs damaged in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. "AVRO" (A. V. Roe and Co., Ltd), aircraft manufacturer in the UK-based AV Roe. In the 1930s. joined the group "Hawker Sidley," closed in 1963. During the 2nd World War II to mass-produce bombers "Lancaster" and "Lincoln." AURORA, in Roman mythology, goddess of the dawn. Corresponds to the Greek Eos. "Aurora", publisher, St. Petersburg. Founded in 1969. The iconic products (cards, pictures, etc..), Art books. "Aurora" cruiser Baltic Fleet. In service since 1903, participated in the Battle of Tsushima, 1905. In the evening, 25.10 (7.11) .1917 "Aurora" blank shot from a gun gave the signal for the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace. Historic Landmark; branch of the Central Naval Museum (1956). Aurora Valentin (1907-77), a Russian linguist, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1964). Researcher Manchu-Tungus languages, problems of typology, historical and comparative linguistics, sociolinguistics. Aurora Eugene N. (b. 1932), the Russian scientist, Hero of Socialist Labor (1967), Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1992). Proceedings of the equations of state and fusion. Lenin Prize (1963). Avseenko Vasily (1842-1913), Russian writer, critic and journalist. Actual social problems in the novels and stories ("At the Crossroads", 1870; "Milky Way", 1875-76; "gnashing of teeth", 1878; "evil spirit", 1881). Short stories, essays, satires. Literary critiques. Ausonius, see. Ausones. Austrasia (Austrasia), the eastern part of the Frankish Merovingian State. In the 6-7 centuries. sometimes isolated in a separate kingdom. AUSTRALIAN depression area of low atmospheric pressure over northern Australia and southern New msg. Guinea. Due to the strong heating of the land surface, especially in the summer. Australian plate Precambrian platform, which occupies the western and central parts of Australia and southern New msg. Guinea. Archean-Proterozoic basement complex meta-volcanic rocks morfizovannymi, gneisses and granites; Upper Proterozoic-Paleozoic sedimentary cover - clastic, carbonate and volcanic rocks (flood basalts). AUSTRALIAN RACE see. Australoid race. Australian Alps, Australia, the highest and dissected Part B. Dividing Ridge. (up to 2230 m, of Kosciusko - the main peak of the mainland). Length approx. 450 km. Forests of eucalyptus trees and tree ferns, elfin. Australian language, indigenous languages of Australia, except the Papuan language Miriam and Tasmanian languages. Genetic similarities Australian languages has not been proved. The total number of languages (due to significant differences between the dialects) is estimated from 200 to 600. Many languages have disappeared or are disappearing. AUSTRALIAN GRAND BAY, Indian c., On the southern coast of Australia. 1335 thousand. Km2. Depth up to 5670 m. Port Adelaide. Australian merino sheep, a breed of fine-wool sheep, bred in the 18th century. in Australia. Coat Length 7.5-10 cm, with sheep fleece 5.5-6.5 kg, with queens 4-5 kg. Bred in many countries. AUSTRALIAN Floral Kingdom, Australia and occupies the adjacent islands. Australian flora floral kingdom, the core of which is the ancient golantarkticheskaya flora includes approx. 1500 genera of plants (30% of births and 80% of the species - endemics). The vegetation is dominated by acacia and eucalyptus trees play an important role by numerous representatives of myrtle family (approx. 1300 species), legumes (c. 1500), sedge (530), as well as orchids, Rutaceae, Sterculioideae and others. Australian, Australia's Indigenous population. 170 thous. People (1992). Largely destroyed by the colonialists. In linguistically and racially constitute a special group. Believers - Presbyterians and Catholics, the traditional cults. Australians are sometimes referred to as the entire population of Australia (see. The Anglo-Australians). AUSTRALIA (Australia), the Commonwealth of Australia (Commonwealth of Australia), a state in the southern hemisphere, on the mainland Australia about. Tasmania and the surrounding islands. 7.7 million. Km2. The population of 17.6 million. People (1993), mostly descendants of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland. Indigenous 1.5%, mainly in the interior. The urban population of 85.4% (1986). The official language - English. Most believers - Christians. Australia - a constitutional monarchy. Part of the Commonwealth. According to the form of government - a federation composed of 6 states and 2 territories. Capital - Canberra. Head of State - Queen of Great Britain, represented by Governor General. Legislative - bicameral parliament (House and Senate). Nature - see. Art. Australia (Mainland). Until the middle. 19 in. Australia used the UK as a place of exile. From the middle. 19 in. (with the discovery of gold, the development of sheep) increased the flow of migrants from the UK who have achieved self-government for certain areas of the country. January 1, 1901 to create a federation six former British colonies, has a right of dominion. After the 2nd World War intensified economic and political role of Australia in the Asia-Pacific region. Australia - industrial-agrarian country with a high level of development of the market economy. The share of gross domestic product (1991-1992,%): 29.6 industry, agriculture, forestry and fishing 3.2. Producing iron ore (115 million. 1991 m), bauxite, ilmenite, rutile, bismuth, lead, zinc, nickel, uranium, tungsten, gold, silver, coal, lignite, petroleum, natural gas. Production of electricity 157 billion. KVtChch (1991). Ferrous and nonferrous metals (zinc refining, refining of copper, aluminum, oil refining and petrochemical industry. The most developed: mechanical engineering (automotive, electrical and avionics, machine tools and locomotive), chemical (production of sulfuric acid, superphosphate, synthetic rubber, plastics), food industry, whose products (meat, flour, canned milk, butter, etc..) is mainly for export. agricultural high-value. The dominant large landed property. Approx. 2/3 of the value of agricultural products gives livestock. By number of sheep (148 million. 1991/92, mainly Merino) and shearing wool (1.1 million. tons in 1991/92), Australia is one of the leading places in the world. Cultivated land - approx. 6% of the territory, meadows and pastures - 59%, approx. 1 / 2 of arable land under wheat (15.7 million fee. tons in 1991/92). fruit and viticulture. Length (1991, thous. km) of railways 37.3, road 810. merchant fleet tonnage of 3.8 million. t deadweight (1992). The main ports: Sydney, Melbourne, Fremantle, Newcastle. Export: agricultural products (wool, wheat, meat, butter, cheese), minerals (ferrous metal ores, coal, iron ore, bauxite). Major trading partners: Japan, USA, EU, new. Zealand. Currency - Australian Dollar AUSTRALIA (Australia, from Lat. Australis - South), the mainland in the Southern Hemisphere. 7,631.5 thousand. Km2. Eastern coast of Australia washed by the Pacific approx., In the north, west and south - Indian approx. Australia are located near large island new. Guinea and Tasmania. Along the north-east coast of Australia - B. Barrier Reef. Eastern part of Australia occupies B. Dividing Ridge. (altitude up to 2230 m, Mount Kosciuszko, Australia's highest point). The middle part of Australia - lowland with depression occupied about. Eyre, the western part - plateau (400-500 m) with separate ridges and mesas. Most of Australia is in the field of the Australian platform, forms the eastern part of the East Australian folded geosynclinal belt. Australia - the hottest part of the land in the southern hemisphere, approx. 2/3 which has desert and semidesert climate. Much of Australia lies in the tropics north - in subequatorial latitudes south-west - in the subtropics. The average July temperature of 12 to 20 ° C, from 20 January to 30 ° C or more. Rainfall decreases from east to west between 1500 mm per year to 300-250 mm or less. 60% of Australia - undrained area. The most full-flowing - p. Murray, the longest - p. Darling; Most of the rivers filled with water only intermittently (ie. n. cries). In desert areas salty Lake Eyre, Torrens, Lake Gairdner. The inner part is occupied by deserts of Australia (B. Sandy Desert, B. Victoria Desert, Gibson), semi-edged belt with thorns (Shrubland). In the north, east, south-east and south-west of semi-transformed into savannas, which are replaced by forests of eucalyptus, palms, tree ferns along the coasts and in the mountains. The fauna is endemic: marsupial mammals (kangaroos, marsupial mole, etc.), Egg-laying mammals (the platypus, echidna), lungfish tseratod. The most famous national parks and game reserves, Mount Buffalo, Kosciusko, South-West and others. Characterized emu, kazaury, cockatoo parrots. Australia opened in 1606 by the Dutchman W. Yanszon and named new. the Netherlands; in the 19th century. stuck the name of Australia ("Southern Land"). Located in Australia State Australia. * AVSTRALIYaIstoriya issledovaniyaPervy stage - Dutch sailors sailing in the 17th. Up to 17 in. Europeans to reach the scattered information about Australia and New Guinea by Portuguese navigators. Australia is considered to be the year of discovery in 1606, when Dutch navigator W. Yanszon surveyed portion west coast of Cape York Peninsula in the north of the continent. During the 17th century. major discoveries were made by Dutch travelers, with the exception of the Spanish expedition in 1606, in which L. Torres opened the strait between New Guinea and Australia (later named after him). Due to the priority of the Dutch originally called Australia New Gollandiya.V 1616 E. Hartog, heading for the island of Java, opened the site west coast of the continent, a survey which was almost fully completed in 1618-22. South Coast (its western part) was investigated in 1627 by F. Theis and P. Neyts. Two trips to Australia committed A. Tasman, the first obognuvshy Australia to the south and to prove that it is a separate continent. In 1642 his expedition discovered the island, which he named after the Dutch East Indies Governor of Van Diemen's Land (later the island was renamed Tasmania), and the island of "Land of the state" (now New Zealand). During the second voyage in 1644, he studied the northern and north-western coast Avstralii.Vtoroy stage - British and French naval expeditions 18 - the first half of the 19th vv.Na the turn of the 18th century. English navigator and pirate William Dampier discovered off the coast of northwestern Australia group of islands named after him. In 1770, during his first circumnavigation J. Cook explored the east coast of Australia, discovered insular position of New Zealand. In 1788 in Sydney, which was then called Port Jackson, was founded a colony for British convicts. In 1798, English surveyor D. Bass opened the strait separating Tasmania from Australia (later strait named after him). In 1797-1803 English explorer M. Flinders walked Tasmania, the entire continent and mapped the southern coast and the Great Barrier Reef, spent shooting the Gulf of Carpentaria. In 1814, he proposed instead to call New Holland southern mainland Australia. His name many geographical objects on the mainland and the surrounding seas. In the same period, the French expedition led by N. Boden opened some islands and bays. Completed studies on the coast of Australia and D. F. King Wicken in 1818-39.Trety stage - overland expedition first half of the 19th v.Pervonachalno during this period because of the difficulty of overcoming the huge inland desert expedition were mainly concentrated in coastal areas. Charles Sturt, T. Mitchell went through the Great Dividing Range, going to the vast plains, but without going into them, were investigated in south-eastern Australia's largest river basin of the continent - the Murray and its tributaries - Darling. In 1840 Polish traveler P. Strzelecki discovered the highest peak in Australia - was Kosciuszko. English researcher E. Eyre in 1841 made the transition along the southern coast of the city of Adelaide in the south-eastern part of the continent to the bay, King George. In the 40-ies. begins the study of desert inland areas of Australia. Erased in 1844-46 examined sandy and rocky desert in the south-eastern part of the continent. In 1844, German scientist L. -45 Leyhgardt crossed the north-eastern Australia, crossed the river Dawson, McKenzie and others, reached the inner regions of Arnhem Land, Sea and then returned to Sydney. In 1848, his new expedition went missing. Unsuccessful searches expedition undertaken Englishman O. Gregory, who has studied the inner region of Arnhem Land, crossed the eastern edge of the central pustyn.Chetverty stage - inland expeditions of the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries. The first to cross Australia from south to north, from Adelaide to the Gulf of Carpentaria, British researchers Robert Burke and William Wills in 1860, on the way back to the area of the river Coopers Creek Burke died. Double-crossed the continent in 1862 the Scottish explorer John. Stewart, who made a great contribution to the study of the central regions. In a subsequent expedition E. Giles (1872-73, 1875-76), George. Forrest (1869, 1870, 1874), D. Lindsay (1891), L. Wells (1896) and other English travelers were examined in detail the desert of Central Australia: great Sandy, Gibson and great Victoria Desert. In the first third of the 20th century., Thanks to the work mainly of British Geographers, were mapped main byway in the inner part Avstralii.Literatura: Light YM History of discovery and research in Australia and Oceania. M., 1967 .. G. Mirlin Australasian Mediterranean, the common name of the seas between Asia and Australia, in the western Pacific approx. The total area of approx. 8 million. Km2. The largest Sea: South China, Java, Sulawesi, Sulu, the Moluccas, and others. Australasian Antarctic Basin, Oceanic basin in the southeast Indian ok., Near Antarctica. In the north and east by the Southeast Indian Ridge, south of the Antarctic continental slope, in the west of the underwater ridge. Kerguelen. Length of 4500 km, the width of 1500 km; prevailing depth of 4000-5000 m, the highest - 6089 m (near the ridge. Kerguelen). Southeast Indian Ridge, an underwater elevation in the south-eastern Indian ok., Connecting the southern part of the Central Indian Ridge. with the South Pacific Rise. Length approx. 6000 km, width up to 800 km, the smallest depth of 1145 m above the crest. Australoid RACE (Australian race), part of the great equatorial (Negro-Australoid) race. Characterized by dark skin, wide nose, prognathism, wavy hair, strong hair growth on the face and body. Common in Australia, South. Asia and Oceania. Many anthropologists distinguish the Australian race as an independent big race. Australopithecus (lat. Australis - Southern and Greek. Pithekos - monkey), sought higher apes, moved on two legs. Numerous finds skeletal remains in the south and east Africa (Zinjanthropus et al.). Lived approx. 3,000,000. Years ago. Austrian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1847 in Vienna. In 1991, approx. 120 active members, St. 70 corresponding members, 20 honorary members, 16 institutions, approx. 40 scientific committees. Austrian school of political economy. Emerged in the 80s. 19 in. in Austria (Menger, Böhm-Bawerk E., F. Wieser et al.). In the 20-ies. 20 in. its successor was "young Austrian School" (L. Mises, FA Hayek, G. Haberler et al.). The main element of the theory of the Austrian School - the doctrine of marginal utility (see. Marginal utility theory). Similar provisions have been put forward W. Jevons and Alfred Marshall (UK), L. Walras (Switzerland), John. B. Clark (USA). The basic principles of the Austrian school developed in the theory of marginal productivity (see. The performance of the theory). Austrian National Bank (Osterreichische Nationalbank), the state central bank of Austria. Founded in 1922. 7 branches. Total assets 223 000 000 000. ATS (181 billion. Dollars. USA) (con. 1980.). Austrian Succession, War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), a coalition of France, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Spain, Piedmont, et al., Disputed the inheritance rights of Maria Theresa in the possession of the Austrian crown and tends to separate them, against Austria, supported by Britain, the Netherlands and Russia. Aachen on the world in 1748, Maria Theresa kept most of their possessions, but almost all of Silesia passed to Prussia. Austrians (self - esterrayher), the people, the main population of Austria (7.15 million. People). The total number of 8.8 million. People (1992). They also live in the USA (1270 thous. People), Germany (180 thousand. People), Canada (40 thous. People) and others. Countries. Language - German. Believers are mostly Catholics. Austria, the Republic of Austria (Republik Osterreich), State Center. Europe, bass. Danube. 83.8 thousand. Km2. The population of 7.9 million. People (1993), 98% - the Austrians. The urban population of 64.5% (1991). Official language - German. Most believers - Catholics. Austria - a federation of 9 lands in t. H. Vienna, capital of Austria. The head of state - the president. Legislative - bicameral parliament (National Council and Federal Council). Most of the territory is occupied eastern. Alps (highest point - Mount Grossglockner, 3797 m) and their foothills; low plain of the Danube. St. 2/5 of the territory - the mountain forests; above - meadows. The climate is temperate continental, in the west of the wet; Average January temperatures from -1 to -4 ° C, July 15-18 ° C. Precipitation of 500-900 mm a year in the mountains up to 2000 mm. Bass River. Danube Lake. Neusiedl, Constance. Reserves: Neusiedler-Zevinkel, Karvendelbirge and others. 6-7 centuries. Austrian territory settled by Germanic and Slavic tribes in part. Since 1156 Austria - Duchy (1453 Archduchy). In 1282 the Habsburgs in Austria affirmed. From the 16th century. Austria became the political center of the shape in the atmosphere of the Ottoman Empire at the onset of the south-east. Europe multinational Habsburg monarchy (in the 16-18 centuries. Entered the Czech Republic, Silesia, Hungary, part of the Polish, Western, South Slavic, Italian and others. Land). In the context. 18 - early. 19th centuries. Austria (1804 - Austrian Empire) participated in the war with France, in the creation in 1815 of the Holy Alliance. Austria and Prussia led the struggle for hegemony in Germany, ended in defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 1867 the Austrian Empire transformed into a dual monarchy - Austria-Hungary. In 1888 formed Social Democratic Party of Austria. In the 1 st World War Austria-Hungary participated in alliance with Germany. Austria-Hungary in the context. 1918 broke up on its ruins created by the state - Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia; part of the territory became part of Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, and Italy. November 12, 1918 Austria proclaimed a republic. Saint-Germain Treaty in 1919 defined its modern borders. In March 1938 the fascist German troops occupied Austria; proclaimed its accession to Germany (Anschluss). In the spring of 1945 Austria was liberated from Nazi domination. She was temporarily occupied by the troops of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France; put an end to the occupation of the State Treaty on the restoration of an independent and democratic Austria (1955). In October 1955 the Austrian Parliament passed a law on the permanent neutrality of Austria. In 1945-66 was ruled by a coalition government of the Austrian People's Party (ANP; founded in 1945 on the basis established in the 80's. 19 in. Christian Social Party) and the Socialist Party of Austria (SPA), in 1966-1970 - the government ANP in 1970-83 - government of SPA, in 1983-86 - the government SPA and the Austrian Freedom Party (founded in 1955), from January 1987 - government spa and ANP. Austria - one of the most economically developed countries in Europe. St. 20% of industrial production is created in the public sector (metallurgical, mining, energy). The role of the capital of Germany. Share in GDP (1991,%): industry, including construction, 36.3, agriculture and forestry 2.8. Iron ore, magnesite, lignite, oil, graphite, lead-zinc and tungsten ores. Electricity production 51.1 billion. KWh (1992), in Vol. H. St. 2/3 hydropower. The most developed: mechanical engineering (transport, agriculture, electrical engineering), ferrous metallurgy (4.3 million. Tons of steel, 3.7 million. Tons of rolled in 1990), aluminum production, chemical, pulp and paper, wood, textile, kozhevenno- footwear, garment industry. Intensive agriculture and high-value; dominated by large estates. Leading the industry - dairy farming. Livestock (1991, mln.) Cattle 2.6, 3.7 pigs. Poultry farming. Wheat, barley, sugar beet, fodder crops. Horticulture and viticulture. Length (1992, thous. Km) of railways 6.7 Road 125. The main river ports: Linz, Vienna. Exports: machinery and equipment, textiles, clothing, paper, wood products, shoes, food, electricity. Major trading partners: Germany and others. EEC countries. Foreign tourism (approx. 15 million. H. Per year). Currency - Austrian schilling. Austro-Asiatic languages (austroaziatskie) language family, common in the south-east. and South. Asia. Includes language groups: Semanggi-Sakai (aslianskuyu) vetmyongskuyu, Mon-Khmer, Palaung Islands, Nicobar, the language Khasi, Munda, Naga languages. Austria-Hungary in 1867-1918 dualistic (dual) monarchy headed by the Austrian Emperor (aka Hungarian King). Created by the transformation of the Austrian Habsburg Empire in 1867 through an agreement between Austria and Hungary, recognized as Austria, sovereign of the state. Divided into the Austrian Empire (or Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (or Transleithania). Broke up in 1918. Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, Piedmont (one of the Italian states) and France against Austria, hold under its domination Lombardo-Venetian region. Major battles of Magenta (June 4) and Solferino (24 June) ended in defeat Austrian troops. According to the Zurich agreements (November 10 1859) Piedmont Lombardy received from Austria, and on the Treaty of Turin in 1860, France from Piedmont (for assisting him) - Savoy and Nice. First Italian War of Independence 1848-1849, for the liberation of the Italian states from Austrian domination; began during the revolutions of 1848-49 in the Italian states. After the defeat of the Italian army at Custoza (July 25, 1848), at Mortara (Mar. 21, 1849) and Novara (23 March 1849) Austrian troops reoccupied the Lombardo-Venetian region., Freed from the power of the Habsburgs during the Italian revolution. First Italian War of Independence in 1866, the national liberation war of Italy against Austrian rule, for completing the unification of the country. The main battle - at Custoza (June 24) and on. Lissa (July 20) - ended in defeat Italian troops. Was carried out simultaneously with the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 ended with a truce on August 10; the Vienna world (October 3) Venice region. depart from Austria to the Kingdom of Italy. Austro-Marxism, ideological and political movement that had developed in the beginning. 20 in. in the Austrian Social Democracy (Karl Renner, Otto Bauer, M. and F. Adler, R. Hilferding, etc.). For the Austro-Marxism is characterized by reformism, attempt to combine Marxism with the neo-program of cultural-national autonomy. Between the two world wars, "the Austrian-Marxist" called all the Austrian Social Democratic Party, which sought to occupy a special position between the social-democratic and communist movements. Some positions of Austro-Marxism reflected in policy documents (1947, 1958, 1978), the Socialist Party of Austria. Austronesian languages, a family of languages are traditionally divided into 4 groups: Indonesian, Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian languages. Austronesian language family nucleus is called the Malayo-Polynesian languages. In modern classifications Austronesian languages of Taiwan are opposed to the rest of the Austronesian languages, among which the Oceanic (vostochnoavstroneziyskaya) branch. Austro-Prussian War of 1866 ended in favor of Prussia, her struggle with Austria for supremacy among the German states. Began June 16 invasion of Hanover, Hesse and Saxony troops of Prussia, provided thanks to a prisoner in April secret military agreements with Italy, at the same time last performance against Austria (see. First Italian War of Independence 1866). The decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War in the Garden (July 3) ended in complete defeat of the Austrian army. According to the Paris Peace Treaty Austria recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation, agreeing to "a new device Germany" (without the participation of Austria), and promised to recognize the new union of the German states to the north of the district. Mine led by Prussia (North German Confederation). Austroslavism program restructuring of the Austrian Empire (since 1867 Austria-Hungary) into a federal state under the rule of the Habsburgs, Advances in the Czech Republic with the 40-ies. 19 in. to beg. 1st World War. Austro-Turkish War of 16-18 cc., Mainly the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. Beginning of the siege of Vienna by the Turks (1529). The overall result of the Austro-Turkish wars of 1540-47, 1551-62, 1566-68, 1660-64 was the division of the land of the Hungarian kingdom. War of 1683-99 ended in defeat of the Ottoman Empire, coated anti-Turkish coalition (Austria, Poland, Venice, 1686, and Russia), and its large territorial losses in Europe (see. Karlovitsky Congress 1698-99), as well as war 1716-18 (see . Art. Pozharevatskie peace treaties in 1718). Austro-Turkish War of 1737-39 and 1788-90 (intertwined with the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-39 and 1787-1791) as a whole have had little success in Austria (back part of the Ottoman Empire, Serbia and Wallachia). Avsyuk Grigory (1906-88), the Russian physical geographer, academician of the USSR (1984). Works on the study of the temperature regime glaciers. Head (1956) Soviet glaciological studies on international programs. Autarky (from the Greek. Autarkeia - self-satisfaction), the creation of a closed economy within a country. AVTITSY Nikopol (Armenian) (d. C. 319), one of the forty-five Christian martyrs damaged in Nikopol Armenian in the persecution of Emperor Licinius. Memory in the Orthodox Church 10 (23) of July. AVTOBANK, the Russian joint-stock commercial bank of the automotive industry. Founded in 1988, Moscow. Offices in Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir, Krasnoyarsk, Kazan, Izhevsk. Equity capital of 1.607 trillion. rub. (1997). AUTOBIOGRAPHY (by car ... and bio), a prose genre, description of his own life; close memoirs, but more focused on the individual and the inner world of the author ("The Past and Thoughts," Herzen). Autolock railway system traffic control signals for automatic traffic lights, operating under the influence of the trains themselves (by means of electrical signals passing along the rails). Auto-lock, auto mode machines, devices, systems (up to a full stop), caused by a sudden disruption of the normal conditions of their functioning; a set of technical tools, automatically performing a mode change. It is used to protect personnel in case of emergency, to prevent the release of marriage with disorder and damage to the machine technology to ensure safety. Bus from the car (mobility) and (omni) beads, multi-seat (9-170 passengers) car with a body mostly rolling type. In city buses maximum speed of at least 70 km / h, the long distance of at least 100 km / h. Length less than 5 m vans and articulated buses and bus trains up to 24 m. The bus station, see. Art. Station. Autowaves one kind of self-supporting waves in active media containing internal energy sources. Autowaves represent the propagation of oscillations in a common oscillatory systems. Examples autowaves: oscillatory chemical reactions in chemically active environment, burning, heterogeneous catalysis, propagation of excitations in systems containing biological membranes and others. Autogamy (by car ... and Greek. Gamos - marriage), 1) self-pollination and self-fertilization in higher plants eg., in wheat. 2) Autogamy in unicellular organisms (fusion of two nuclei), eg., From diatoms, some of the simplest. Autogenesis (by car ... ... and genesis), teaching, explaining the evolution of organisms action only internal intangible factors ("principle of perfection", "force of growth", etc.). Autogenesis close to vitalism. Avg. Ektogenez. Autogenerators (self-excited generator) generates electrical (electromagnetic) vibrations, supported in part by supplying the AC voltage from the output of the oscillator at its input (feedback loop). Applied, eg., In radio transmitters.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM NIETZSCHE / ФРИДРИХ ВИЛЬГЕЛЬМ НИЦШЕ

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