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Air transport, see. Transport. Air filters, used for cleaning dust air supplied to the room ventilation and air conditioning systems, or used in processing plants and machines. Circulated air filters with fiber, oil or sponge filter material. Possibility and reality, philosophical categories expressing the main stage in the development of objects and phenomena; opportunity - the trend of development of the subject; reality - objectively existing objects as a result of certain features. Distinguish abstract or formal (for which there is all the necessary conditions) and real (having for its implementation of all necessary conditions) capabilities. The ability to move (virtual displacement), infinitely small displacement, which can make the point of the mechanical system of the occupied by them at any given time position, without breaking ties imposed on the system (see. Links mechanical). The possibility of moving principle, equilibrium of a mechanical system is necessary and sufficient that the sum of all the work forces acting on the system for any possible movement of the system is zero. Possible displacement principle is applied in the study of the equilibrium conditions of complex mechanical systems (mechanisms, machines). Perturbation of the magnetic, abrupt changes in Earth's magnetic field, characterized by sudden onset of magnetic variations and rapid leakage. Example - magnetic storms. Ascension, one of the twelve great religious holidays, established in honor of Christ's ascension into heaven. Believers celebrated on the 40th day after Easter. Voznesensky, city (1938) in Ukraine, Mykolaiv region. Marina on the river. South. Bug. Railway station. 44.4 thousand. Inhabitants (1991). Food industry. Leather Association, pressing plant sites and other. Founded in 1795. Voznesensky Julia (pres. The name of Julia N. Okulov) (b. 1940), Russian writer. Since 1980 in exile in Germany. Started out as a poet. In 1976, was sentenced to 5 years of exile. In the essay "Notes from the sleeves" (1979), "Women's Camp in the USSR" (1980), "White Daisy" (1982), the book "Women's Decameron" (1987), based on documentary material, talks about the humiliating position of women in the Soviet camps. The story "Star Chernobyl" (1987). Autobiographical lyrics. Ascension Andrey (b. 1933), Russian poet and academician RW (1993). In the lyrics - the desire to "measure" of modern man categories and images of world civilization; extravagance of similes and metaphors, the rhythmic complexity of the system, the sound effects. Compilations: "Triangular Pear" (1962), "Antiworlds" (1964), "stained glass maker" (1976, USSR State Prize, 1978), "The axiom samoiska" (1990). Poem "The Master" (1959), "Longjumeau" (1963), "Oz" (1964), "Avos" (1972; rock opera "Juno and Avos", setting 1981), "moat" (1986). Memoir prose, journalism; book "superintendents of the spirit" (1984). Ascension Ivan Nikolaevich (1887-1946), the Russian scientist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1939). Major works on gidromashinostroeniyu (led the design and construction of high-power turbines and pumps) and automatic adjustment (steam turbines and boilers). USSR State Prize (1947, posthumously). Ascension Nikolai (1903-50), Russian politician, academician of the USSR (1943). In 1938-41, 1942-49 chairman of Gosplan. In 1946-49 Deputy Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers. Member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1939-49. Member of the Politburo in 1947-49 (Ph.D. 1941). The book "The War Economy of the USSR during World War II" (1947). USSR State Prize (1948). Repressed (see. "Leningrad Affair"); posthumously rehabilitated. Voznitsyn Procopius Bogdanovic, Russian diplomat con. 17 early. 18th centuries. Member of the Grand Embassy of 1697-98 and 1698-99 Karlovitskogo Congress. In 1699 Voznitsyn sign lucrative Russian truce with the Ottoman Empire. Head of the Pharmaceutical order (from 1699). Auriga (lat. Auriga), a constellation of the northern hemisphere with the bright star Capella. Renewable energy, renewable sources continuously in Earth's biosphere forms of energy - solar, wind, ocean, hydropower rivers. Renewable energy sources are environmentally friendly; they also do not lead to additional heating of the planet (so called nedobavlyayuschimi). Sleigh, old covered wagon winter on runners. Increase and decrease of the function, the concept of mathematical analysis. The function f (x) is called increasing on the interval [a, b], if for any pair of points x1 and x2, a? x1 <x2? b, the inequality f (x1) <f (x2), and a non-decreasing if f (x1)? f (x2). Defined similarly decrease and non-increasing function. Population age structure, the ratio of the number of different age groups. Depends on the levels of fertility and mortality, life expectancy. In 1990, the population under the age of 15 years was (in the world) 32%, 15-64 years - 62%, 65 years and older - 6%. "REVIVAL", 1) Russian periodical, London weekly newspaper (1926-35), weekly (1936-40). Editor Struve, a leading literary critic - VF Khodasevich (1927). 2) Russian literary and political journal, "organ of the Russian national idea", 1949-74, Paris. Among the editors - II Thorzhevsky, SP Mel'gunov, SS Obolensky. Renaissance (Renaissance), a period of cultural and ideological development of Zap. and cents. Europe (Italy, 14-16 centuries. In other countries the context. 15-16 cc.), The transition from medieval culture to the culture of modern times. Distinctive features of the culture of the Renaissance: secular, anti-clerical character, humanistic worldview (see. Humanism), the reference to the cultural heritage of antiquity, like the "revival" of it (hence the name). Revival emerged most clearly evident and in Italy, where at the turn of 13-14 centuries. (see. Protorenessans) its forerunners were the poet Dante, Giotto and other artists. Creativity Renaissance figures imbued with faith in the unlimited possibilities of man, his will and reason, denial of scholasticism and asceticism (humanistic ethics Italians Lorenzo Valla, Pico della Mirandola, and others.). Pathos of the ideal of harmonious, relaxed creative personality, beauty and harmony really appeal to man as a higher principle of being, a sense of wholeness and harmonious patterns of the universe give the art of the Renaissance great ideological significance, the magnificent heroic scale. The architecture began to play a leading role secular buildings - public buildings, palaces, town houses. Using a warrant division walls, arched galleries, colonnades, arches, domes, architects (Brunelleschi, Alberti, Bramante, Palladio in Italy, Lesko, Delorme in France) gave its majestic buildings clarity, harmony and proportionality person. Artists (Donatello, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Mantegna, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto in Italy; Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Breughel in the Netherlands; Dürer, Nithardt, Holbein in Germany; Fouquet , Goujon, Clouet in France) consistently mastered all the wealth of artistic reflection of reality - the transfer of volume, space, light, depicting a human figure (in. t. h. nude) and the real environment - the interior landscape. Literature of the Renaissance created such monuments of lasting value as "Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1533-52), Rabelais, Shakespeare, the novel "Don Quixote" (1605-15) Cervantes et al., Organically combines the interest in antiquity to appeal to people's culture, comic pathos with the tragedy of existence. Sonnets of Petrarch, Boccaccio novels, heroic poem Ariosto, philosophical grotesque (treatise of Erasmus' Praise of Folly ", 1511), essays of Montaigne in different genres, forms of individual and national options embody the ideas of the Renaissance. The music penetrates humanistic outlook, developing vocal and instrumental polyphony, new genres of secular vocal (Frottola and Villanelle in Italy, in Spain Villancico ballad in England, madrigal) and instrumental music; era ends with the emergence of such genres as a solo song, cantata, oratorio and opera, that upholds homophony. In the Renaissance spread philosophical ideas of Neoplatonism (Ficino) and pantheism (Patrizi, Bruno et al.) Were made outstanding scientific discoveries in the field of geography (Age of Discovery), astronomy (development Copernicus heliocentric system), anatomy (Vesalius). WARRIORS Konstantin N. (b. 1918), the Russian film director, People's Artist of the USSR (1989). Productions of films: "Three out of the woods" (1958), "Young-Green" (1962), "The Marriage Bal'zaminova" (1965), "Uncle's Dream" (1967), "Rudin" (1977), the documentary "Festival of Sport and the World "(1985). Conscription, the statutory duty of the population (usually 18 years) to perform military service in the armed forces of the country. For the first time conscription was introduced in 1798 in France (konskriptsiya). Military units, military and organizational self-administrative units in all branches of the armed forces (the regiment, the ship of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd rank, separate battalion, battalion, squadron, company). Military unit assigned to a valid name (eg., 3rd Tank Regiment) and code name (eg., The military unit 55555). Military honors, showing respect (reverence) by the military or military units. Military honors may be given at the meeting and seeing representatives of foreign states. For the leave-taking of military honors appointed a guard of honor and the orchestra. Military honors product, one of the types of awards military formations, units, ships, institutions, military schools. For military honorary titles include the name to commemorate historical events, in honor of the state and public organizations, government, military figures, by the names of cities, rivers, etc., Where the data connection units distinguished themselves in battle. MILITARY PRESENCE in Russia in 1874-1917 provincial (regional) and county (district) and municipal institutions dealing with the affairs of conscription. Military commanders in Russia from 1874 person directs the local military administration in the province (up to 1881) and district (until 1918); was in charge of local troops, military mobilization and accounting recruiting work. Warriors, ancient Russian city 10-13 centuries. on the Dnieper. Remains of the citadel with wooden walls, rampart and ditch, housing outbuildings (location warriors flooded waters Kremenchug Reservoir.). FELT (Turk.), The textile material obtained woolen wallow (less mineral and chemical) fibers and mineral wool (bitumen bonded). Used primarily as cushioning, heat and sound insulation material. WAR organized armed struggle between states, nations (peoples), social groups. In war, the armed forces are used as the main and decisive means, as well as economic, political, ideological, and other means of struggle. The war between social groups within the country for state power is called a civil war. Over the last 5.5 thousand. Years was ok. 14.5 thousand. Large and small wars (in Vol. H. Two world), which killed or died of starvation and epidemics St. 3.6 billion. People. In modern conditions in connection with the termination of the "cold war" reduce the risk of a global nuclear war. However, continued t. N. local wars - military conflicts related to religious, territorial and national disputes, tribal strife, and so on. d. The international community, the UN seek to establish a system of relations between states, eliminating the threat or use of force. THE VIETNAM WAR common name of the second Indochina War (1965-75) with the participation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and the United States. First Indochina War (1945-54) ended with the defeat of France, Time Division Vietnam under the Geneva Agreements on Indochina in 1954 in two parts, in the territory of which were later declared independent states with different political systems - Democratic Republic of Vietnam, with its capital in Hanoi in the north and the Republic of Vietnam with its capital in Saigon - the south .------ ------ prologue beginning of the war were the events of the war in the Gulf of Tonkin near the coast of Vietnam in August 1964, when, according to official Washington, torpedo boats attacked the Vietnamese ships of the US Navy and the US Congress passed a resolution to provide President Johnson the right to use the US military in South-East Asia .------ in March 1965 the Johnson administration sent troops into the territory of South Vietnam to protect him from taking measures to North Vietnam unification of Vietnam by force of arms. In parallel with the February 1965 the United States began a massive bombing of North Vietnam, in order to force the Communist leaders in Hanoi refuse to support the forces united in December 1960, the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF), who opposed the pro-Western regime in Saigon. Subsequently military action covered not only the territory of Vietnam, but also neighboring Laos and Cambodia (hence its second name) .------ From the Vietnam military action took the form of large-scale guerrilla operations in South Vietnam with the participation of regular troops DRV against the armed forces of South Vietnam and its US ally. In addition to the massive US bombing of North Vietnam in Saigon supported military operations against the guerrillas, provide economic assistance to the Paris peace talks .------ ------ the beginning of 1968 the war came to a standstill, neither one of the parties failed to resolve tasks. In May 1968, peace talks began in Paris, initially only between the US and Vietnam, and then, in January 1969 with the participation of representatives of the Saigon regime and the NLF. However, the military action in Vietnam continued during the Paris peace talks on Vietnam .------ After more than four years of negotiations, January 27, 1973 the US administration, headed by Richard Nixon, weakened by internal political crisis ("Watergate affair") went to the signing of an agreement with Vietnam on the terms of withdrawal of its troops from Vietnam. In February and March 1973 in Paris hosted an international conference on Indochina, secure Paris peace agreement to end the war and keeping the peace in Vietnam, signed by the United States and the Republic of (South) Vietnam, on the one hand, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the NLF, on the other. Unsuccessful and prolonged military action, accompanied by a large loss engendered in American society t. N. "Vietnam syndrome", t. e. strongly opposed the participation of American soldiers in overseas military conflicts, whatever goals it involved not justified .------ Vietnam War continued, however, for another two years, now between the North Vietnam, in alliance with the NLF and the Saigon regime headed by General Nguyen Van Thieu. It was completed in April 1975 as a result of the spring offensive of the armed forces of the DRV and the NLF combat troops and the fall of the capital of the South - Saigon. Power in the territory of South Vietnam into the hands of a Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. The role of the USSR ------ ------ Throughout the ten years of conflict, the Soviet Union provided Vietnam diverse assistance, seeking to increase its influence in Indochina and the weakening of the US, its main rival in the "cold war." If prior to the US entry into the war, Soviet support for Vietnam was limited mainly economic cooperation, in the spring of 1965 in the total amount of economic aid began to increase the share of military supplies to Hanoi. Already by 1968 the Soviet Union occupied the leading position among the countries that supported the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, pushing the Peoples Republic of China in second place. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union made efforts to resolve the conflict in Vietnam through diplomatic channels, fearing a possible global crisis and being interested (in terms of acute differences with the Chinese Communists) in the "discharge" of international tension .------ References: ------ Cats LV Egorov RS militant solidarity, fraternal assistance. M., 1970 .------ Mkhitaryan S., T. Mkhitaryan Vietnamese Revolution: Theory and Practice. M., 1986 .------ Cooper Ch. The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam. New York, 1970 .------ Kolko G. Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience. New York, 1985 .------ Smith RB An International History of the Vietnam War. London, 1985 .------ Kahin GM Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam. New York, 1986 .------ Pike D. Vietnam and the Soviet Union: Anatomy of an Alliance. Boulder, 1987 .------ Gibbons WC The US Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships. Washington, 1988. P. 3 And .------. V. Haiduk War of Independence IN NORTH AMERICA 1775-83, Liberation War 13 British colonies, during which created an independent state - the United States. Began fighting at Lexington and Concord (April 1775). In 1776, the Declaration of Independence. US Army (with June 1775 Commander in Chief George. Washington) won a decisive victory at Saratoga (October 1777) and Yorktown (October 1781). By the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 Britain recognized the independence of SSHA.VOYNA FOR INDEPENDENCE IN NORTH AMERICA 1775-83 revolutionary war of liberation 13 British colonies in North America - American War revolyutsiya.Prichiny UK Politics contrary to the objective course of development of the colonies and the folding of the new nation. Metropolis systematically suppresses the development of the colonies of Industry and Trade, sought to maintain them as a source of cheap raw materials and a market for manufactured goods. Growing resistance caused by the action of Great Britain on the taxation of the colonies: the Stamp Act 1765 Acts Taumshenda 1767. Economic oppression side by side with the political. Thus, the Act of 1766 asserted the supremacy of virtually unlimited power over the colonies of the British Parliament. The rise of the liberation movement contributed to the politicization of the colonists, the creation of patriotic organizations, the best known of which received a "Sons of Liberty". Conflict escalated to a step towards a more active resistance was "Boston Massacre" 1770. cohesive forces in the colonies contributed to "the Liaison Committee", headed the transition from the boycott of British goods to acts of resistance. One of these acts was the "Boston Tea Party" in 1773, by which the British Parliament said the adoption of a series of "repressive acts" 1774. Awareness of the need for joint action led to the convening of the I-th of the Continental Congress, which met from September 5 to October 26, 1774 in Philadelphia and accepted "Declaration of the Rights and complaints "and" association "which authorized the termination of trade relations with Britain. The critical situation in the colonies, prompted the United Kingdom to take decisive action against the rebels. April 19, 1775 at Lexington and Concord, the first blood was shed - began a new armed liberation stage dvizheniya.Nachalo war. Continental Congress In this situation, the Continental Congress, resumed his work May 10, 1775, took over the functions of the central government of the colonies, united in one person the legislative and executive power. One of his first decisions was to create a regular army and the election of its commander in chief James. Washington. Already June 17, 1775, Americans demonstrated the ability to counter the British regular army, inflicting damage sensitive of Bunker Hill. The break with the mother country seemed imminent, but a year passed before Congress decided on the final step. Decisive turning point in the mood for independence produced a pamphlet T. Paine "Common Sense" (1776). Based on the ideas of the French Enlightenment (JA Condorcet, Montesquieu, Rousseau) and English philosophers (Francis Bacon, John Locke, D. Milton), the leaders of the American patriots developed ideological tenets perceived by the majority their fellow citizens. On this basis, the colonies adopted the new democratic constitution, to create their own authorities. May 15, 1776, Congress decided to transform the colonies into independent republic from the metropolis-states. June 7 RG Lee made a "resolution independence" on the basis of which was composed the Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776. Two other resolutions RG Lee led to the formulation of the "Plan contracts" with foreign countries and the first project of the American Constitution "articles of Confederation and perpetual Union ".Voennye actions in 1775-76 passed with varying degrees of success. Washington, July 3, 1775 accepted the command of the army, led the siege of Boston, which ended with victory in March 1776. The attempted invasion by the Americans to Canada was marked by the capture of November 13, 1775 in Montreal. However, it was not possible to seize Quebec and by the end of 1776 the expedition failed. Commander of the British forces, General William Howe (Howe) decided to use a strategic position in New York. Backed by ships of the squadron under the flag of his brother Admiral R. Howe, in August 1776 he landed on Long Island for more than 20 thousand. Soldiers and inflicting a heavy defeat to the Americans at Brooklyn, September 5, occupied the city. At the turn of 1776-77 Washington suffered a series of defeats, but took revenge at Trenton and Princeton. Its success has raised the morale of the American army. Army, established by militias different states, constantly experiencing difficulties with the staffing, training and logistics. Its trump card was the tactic extended order, used successfully against classical linear construction of the British Army. Almost the same tactics of surprise attacks on British ships and captains showed American ships coming out into the Atlantic and even cruise off the coast of Britain. Saratoga Campaign 1777. In the 1777 campaign the brunt of the British command planned to inflict on New England. The troops of General George. Burgoyne, speaking in mid-June from Canada, captured Fort Ticonderoga strategically important and striking at the American rearguard in Habbartona, forced him to retreat. Americans gather strength, inflicted a defeat on August 13 at Bennington. General Howe in violation of all strategic intent is not moved to the north and south. In August, the fleet brought his troops in the Chesapeake Bay and landed 54 miles from the US capital. Breaking the Americans on September 11 at Brandywine Creek, British troops entered on September 26 to Philadelphia. October 4, Washington suffered a heavy defeat at Germantown and in December 1777 led an army into winter quarters at Valley Ford, who became a symbol of courage and endurance of the American soldier. A different situation developed in the north. Here, part of the US Army under the command of General G. Gates at Saratoga surrounded and October 17, 1777 forcing the surrender of General Burgoyne's troops. The campaign ended with the collapse of the 1777 plans of British strategists, almost all central states were released, and the British kept only the city of Philadelphia, New York and Newport. The victory at Saratoga strengthened the position of the US in the international arena. US diplomats, led by Benjamin Franklin could February 6, 1778 to sign with France a treaty of friendship and defensive alliance. Favorable position of the United States and Russia, which proclaimed in 1780 the principles of armed neutrality. The internal situation in the United States throughout the War of Independence was extremely tense. The severity of the financial situation was exacerbated by inflation, states were overrun by the depreciation of paper money, Congress totally dependent on foreign loans. Democratic reforms in the field moved with difficulty. Together with the British troops fought loyalists remained loyal to the British Crown. "Articles of Confederation", adopted in 1777 and ratified by the states in 1781, retained the sovereignty of states, limiting the prerogatives of the central vlasti.Zavershayuschy stage of the war. Yorktown In 1778 a new British commander General H. Clinton was forced to leave Philadelphia and concentrate efforts in New York. At the end of 1778 the British settled on "southern" version, determined to strike at the Georgia and South Carolina. Having taken 29 December Savannah, Augusta and a month later the British soon occupied the whole of Georgia. Some consolation for Americans served their victory in July and August at Stony Point and Paulus Hook, prevented the British to establish control over the Hudson River. At the end of 1779 from New York to South Carolina sailed 8000th Army Clinton. Together with reinforcements she was 14 thousand. Man after month siege on May 12 took Charleston, capturing 5.4 thousand. American soldiers and 300 guns. Clinton returned to New York, and in August the British under the command of General Charles Cornwallis defeated the troops of General Gates at the Battle of Camden, and establish control over North Carolina. Further promotion of the British suspended the victories won by the Americans on November 7 in Kings Mountain, but the 1780 campaign was lost irretrievably. Gates was replaced by General H. Greene and already 17 January 1781 the British suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Kaupense. Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15, ended in victory Kornouollisa, but at the cost of significant losses, bled his army. Green tactics enabled him to lure Kornouollisa to Virginia, where the British army was left without a reliable supply bases. The British lost control over the south, keeping in their hands until the end of 1782 only Charleston. Cornwallis, united with a cross in Virginia English part, has more than 7.5 thousand. Soldiers and by August was fixed at Yorktown. It was moved here Washington combined Franco-American army, surrounding Yorktown. Even before the city was blockaded by sea French squadron of Admiral de Grasse. Siege of Yorktown ended November 19, 1781, after which the military operations in the United States virtually ceased. In Paris peace talks began, during which the US diplomatic mission of Benjamin Franklin, John. John Adams. Jay, using the Anglo-French conflict, November 30, 1782 entered into a preliminary peace treaty with Great Britain. This document, Article 1 of which recognized the independence of the United States and proposed US side of the border, was concluded on favorable terms for the Americans and 3 September 1783 became part of the Paris peace dogovor.Voyna for independence was a revolution that overthrew the British colonial rule and led to the creation of a new independent state based on republican principles. The winning American democracy laid the preconditions for the successful development of the United States, influenced the French Revolution and the liberation movement in Latin Amerike.Literatura: The War of Independence and the US education / Ed. GN Sevostyanova. M., 1976.Fursenko AA American Revolution and the formation of the United States. L., 1978.Morgan ES The Birth of Republic, 1763-1789. New York, 1956.Wood G. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. New York, 1969.Higginbotham D. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies and Practice, 1763-1789. New York, 1971.Bailyn B. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge (Mass.), 1976.Ferguson EJ The American Revolution: A General History, 1763-1790. Homewood, 1979.Dull JR A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. New Haven, 1985.V. N. Pleshkou Latin American wars of independence of 1810-26, the war of liberation. Beginning of the uprising in the main administrative centers - Caracas, Buenos Aires, Bogota, et al. The Patriots won a major victory in Venezuela, Mexico and La Plata. However, to the con. 1815 Spaniards managed to recover almost everywhere its dominance. In 1816 started the 2nd stage of the war. The troops under the leadership of Bolivar liberated from Spanish rule in 1819 new. Granada, Venezuela in 1821, Quito in 1822, under the leadership of J. San Martin - in 1816, La Plata, Chile in 1818, in 1821 the Lower Peru. In 1821 Spanish rule was abolished in Mexico in 1824-26 under the direction of Sucre defeated the last Spanish garrison in Upper Peru. As a result of the war, all the Spanish colonies in the Americas, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, gained independence.
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